Descartes' Philosophy: Foundations of Modern Knowledge

Descartes' Quest for Certainty

René Descartes addressed the insecurity and confusion of his era by proposing a rational response rooted in the thinking and existing "I," establishing a foundation of certainty.

Philosophical Context of the 17th Century

1. The Shifting Concept of Truth

   The 17th century witnessed a profound gnoseological shift in modernity, redefining the concept of truth and knowledge. The possibility of achieving rigorous knowledge emerged, yet empiricists affirmed that we only perceive representations and images of truth. Consequently, the nature of truth became a highly contested theme.

2. The Pursuit of Method

   The attainment of truth necessitated a strong concern for method. This method had to facilitate progress and advancement. The scholastic syllogism, previously used, was rejected for its inability to offer new insights. The method would be defined in various ways:

   • Francis Bacon's Novum Organum: Bacon proposed overcoming the syllogism by establishing an inductive method. This approach, combining experience and reason, was deemed effective if it could reject prejudices and "idols."
   • Descartes' Procedure: Descartes defined his procedure as a set of certain, clear, and easy rules designed to advance knowledge.
   • Spinoza, Locke, and Hume: Baruch Spinoza proposed a geometric method, while John Locke and David Hume championed the empirical method.

   In general, the method, for both rationalism and empiricism, involved a reflection on our ideas.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism: A Comparative View

Shared Foundations

• Both rationalism and empiricism share the concept of the idea. Knowing is understood as the apprehension of ideas.
• Both seek to explain the genesis and origins of knowledge.
• Intuition is considered a primary mode of knowing.

Fundamental Differences

• Rationalism:
  • The subject grounds and regulates knowledge.
  • Thinking operates independently.
  • Innate ideas are central.
  • Mathematical methods (hypothetico-deductive) are preferred for knowledge.
  • Substance is a central concept.
• Empiricism:
  • The subject is subordinate to experience.
  • Thought depends on the senses.
  • Ideas are based on experience.
  • The method of knowledge is akin to physics (inductive).
  • Substance is a problematic concept.

Descartes' Mathematical Philosophy & New Science

Descartes aimed to explain knowledge and philosophy through mathematics, a philosophy inherited from the burgeoning new science.

Defining Features of the New Science

• Mathematization: The belief that understanding and dominating nature requires mathematical principles.
• Practicality: Knowledge should be applied by individuals to dominate nature.
• Influence of the Renaissance.
• Rupture with Aristotelian syllogism and traditional modes of inquiry.
• Shift from a God-centered worldview to the "I" as the foundation of certainty.

The Emergence of Modern Subjectivism

Unlike Plato and Aristotle, Descartes championed the primacy of the subject over the object. This epistemological shift, where the focus moves from the object to the subject, marked the emergence of modern subjectivism.