Descartes' Philosophy: Existence, Reality, and Human Freedom

The Existence of the World

Having demonstrated the existence of God, who is perfect, the possibility of self-deception and the possibility of an evil genius constantly deceiving me are eliminated. Therefore, the stated reasons for doubting both mathematical and general intelligible truths, as well as truths derived from the senses, are removed. Since God exists and is perfect, He cannot allow me to be deceived into believing that the world exists if it does not. Thus, the world exists.

The Structure of Reality: Three Substances

Descartes distinguished three levels of reality:

• An infinite substance (God), which is the ultimate cause of the other two substances.
• The thinking substance (Self), also known as the soul.
• The extended substance (the World), also known as the body.

SUBSTANCE means anything that exists in such a way that it needs no other thing in order to exist. However, this definition strictly applies only to God, the infinite substance. The other two finite substances (the Self and the World) do not need each other to exist, but they do need God, who created and maintains them.

Mind and Body: Descartes's Dualism

Descartes conceived of man as a conjunction of thought (soul) and extension (body). Extension means that every body has a place in space. Through thought (mind), I can conceive of the body as a material, extended, and non-thinking thing. Therefore, I am different from my body and I can exist without it. Consequently, the soul exists even if the body ceases to exist.

Reason, Freedom, and the Passions

For Descartes, passions are sensations within us that affect the soul without originating from it. They are involuntary, beyond the control and command of the soul, are immediate, leave no room for reflection, and are not always consistent with reason. The strength of the soul is to overcome and subdue these passions appropriately, while the weakness of the soul is to be dominated by them. A person must be guided, not by the passions, but by experience and by reason, and only thus can they distinguish between good and evil and avoid excesses.

The Self as Thought and Freedom

The perfection of the human being, according to Descartes, lies in freedom. Freedom is undeniable and essential, and it allows us:

• To be masters of nature.
• To be masters of our own actions.

These actions include the act of questioning, which is a fundamental part of Descartes's entire philosophy. As Descartes stated, "Freedom is our criterion for choosing what is good and true."