Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and Comparison to Aristotle

Historical Context

René Descartes' life unfolded primarily in the first part of the 17th century. The 16th century witnessed the fragmentation of religious unity in Europe due to the Protestant Reformation, challenging the long-held ideal of a united Europe under the Christian faith.

Socio-politically, France, Holland, and England emerged as economic centers. Absolute monarchy spread across Europe. The Spanish bourgeoisie faced economic ruin, while nobility and clergy remained the primary landowners. England experienced two revolutions and a civil war. Europe engaged in colonial ventures driven by mercantilist principles. The growth of trade empowered the bourgeoisie, leading to the breakdown of the Ancien Régime. This era marked the height of the Baroque period, a Golden Age for literature, painting, and music.

Philosophical Contributions

Descartes is considered the father of modern philosophy and rationalism. He broke from traditional philosophical approaches by emphasizing the autonomy and self-sufficiency of reason. He favored the mathematical method as a means to provide reason with certainty. Descartes adopted an idealistic stance, initiating a theory of knowledge that became central to his philosophy. Rationalism and empiricism emerged as two dominant philosophical schools of thought.

Descartes Compared to Aristotle

Aristotle's Physics vs. Descartes' Theory of Knowledge

Aristotle's physics focused on the study of man, considering him a physical being with unique characteristics. In contrast, Descartes prioritized the theory of knowledge, arguing that knowledge is the fundamental problem. From this perspective, man appears as a permanent substance, distinctly separate from extended substance.

The Nature of Man

Both philosophers held a dualistic view of consciousness, conceiving of man as composed of body and soul. For Aristotle, body and soul formed a natural and substantial union. Descartes, however, argued that they are united but are radically different substances. He also posited that the soul can think independently of the extended body, defining man primarily as a "res cogitans" (thinking thing).

The Nature of the Soul

Aristotle distinguished between three types of soul: vegetative, sensitive, and rational. He considered the soul the fundamental principle of life and therefore immortal. Descartes stated that the human soul is the principle of movement, a capacity bestowed by God. Consequently, the soul is unlike the body, incorruptible, and immortal. Death occurs when the body ceases to function.

Interaction Between Body and Soul

For Aristotle, the soul is the form and act of the body and cannot be identified separately. Descartes found it impossible to explain their interaction, considering them radically different.