Descartes and the 17th Century: A Search for New Foundations

A Century of Crisis

René Descartes (1596-1650) developed his philosophy during the 17th century, a period marked by political and religious upheaval. This crisis led to a loss of established foundations, resulting in doubt and a search for new certainties.

Key Characteristics of the 17th Century

• Absolutism: The absolute authority of the monarch, mirroring Descartes' aim to establish absolute knowledge.
• Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church's efforts to maintain Christian unity through the Inquisition, leading to religious wars like the Thirty Years' War (in which Descartes participated).
• Baroque: An artistic movement expressing transience, pessimism, and disorder, exemplified by figures like Molière, Calderón de la Barca, Cervantes, Velázquez, Rembrandt, and Caravaggio.
• New Science: The rise of modern science with Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler, establishing the pillars of experimental science and influencing Descartes' emphasis on mathematics as a model for knowledge.

The official religion often opposed science, leading to its development in scientific societies like the Royal Society and the Paris Academy of Mathematics.

Social and Political Thought

Political and religious conflicts influenced social thought. Absolutism was theorized by Hobbes and Bossuet, while parliamentarism was advocated by Locke. Knowledge became a central theme.

Descartes and Rationalism

In this context, Descartes emerged as a key figure in the rationalist philosophical movement, alongside Leibniz, Spinoza, and Malebranche. Rationalism emphasized:

• Reason as the source of knowledge.
• Demonstration based on the rational-deductive mathematical model.
• Innate ideas as clear and certain principles for building universal knowledge.
• Rational evidence as the sole criterion of truth.

Reactions Against Skepticism and Scholasticism

Descartes reacted against two schools of thought:

• Skepticism: Which maintained the impossibility of attaining true, certain knowledge.
• Scholastic Philosophy: Which Descartes viewed as filled with conflicting opinions that fostered endless debate without genuine truth.