Defining Truth: Pragmatism, Consensus, and Epistemological Attitudes

Theories of Truth: Utility and Consensus

Truth as Utility (Pragmatic Theory)

This theory was bolstered in the modern era by the American philosopher **Charles Sanders Peirce**. According to the pragmatic theory, human theoretical thought is characterized by its ability to act. Hence, any theory must be aimed at an end. In this context, a thought or theory is true if it is effective in practice. For example, the statement 'God exists' is considered true or false according to whether people find this belief useful or effective in their lives.

Truth as Consensus

This theory is defended in the modern era by a group of philosophers associated with the so-called **Frankfurt School of Critical Theory**. The most important authors include **Jürgen Habermas** and **Theodor Adorno**. Critical Theory reflects on neo-capitalism from a neo-Marxist perspective.

Habermas developed the consensual theory of truth, according to which truth must be the result of an agreement or consensus achieved under conditions of *ideal dialogue*. The first and most important condition is the willingness to dialogue among the subjects involved. Other crucial conditions include that the subjects involved act with **freedom and independence of mind**.

Problems with Consensus Theory

The problems inherent in the theory of consensus are twofold:

1. The conditions required for ideal dialogue are difficult to achieve in practice.
2. A majority agreement does not necessarily mean that the resulting conclusion is true.

Epistemological Attitudes Towards Truth

Dogmatism

Dogmatism is the philosophical thesis according to which we can attain truth with certainty (e.g., through intuition or senses). The term *dogma* means 'fundamental principle.' Dogmatism asserts that true principles exist objectively and only need to be uncovered by humans.

The dogmatic attitude is characterized by an individual's certainty in their ideas or beliefs, often rendering them impervious to criticism. Dogmatic acceptance means adopting ideas or beliefs without sufficient rationale, believing them to be inherently rational. A major danger of this attitude is its radicalization, which often leads to **fanaticism**.

Skepticism

The term *skepticism* means 'looking carefully' or 'inquiring.' In its moderate form, skepticism is the philosophical thesis that requires us to analyze an idea or belief meticulously before acceptance or rejection. It is an attitude of careful deliberation, acknowledging the difficulty of achieving absolute truth or accuracy.

Moderate vs. Radical Skepticism

However, **radical skepticism** asserts that truth is impossible to achieve. While some statements (such as one's own existence) might be considered undoubted, the majority of beliefs remain subject to doubt.