Defining Moments in European History: 1450-1920

The Renaissance and Early Modern Europe (1450-1600)

1450: Constantinople Falls, Renaissance Dawns

• Ottoman Turks seize Constantinople.
• The Renaissance begins.

1517: Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation

• The Reformation starts with Martin Luther, emphasizing inner-directed faith.

1534: Calvinism's Rise in France

• Calvinism emerges in France, defining the relationship with God as a legal covenant.

1545-1563: The Council of Trent and Catholic Reform

• The Council of Trent addresses education and strengthens the Inquisition.

1555: Peace of Augsburg

• The Peace of Augsburg establishes a religious settlement for 60 years, involving Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League.

1562-1598: Huguenot Wars in France

• Conflicts between Huguenots and French Catholics, including the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572).

1576: Catholic League Formation

• The Catholic League is formed by Henry I, Duke of Guise.

1598: Edict of Nantes

• France grants rights to Huguenots through the Edict of Nantes.

Religious Tensions and the Thirty Years' War (1600-1648)

1607: Catholicism Reestablished in Donauwörth

• Maximilian I of Bavaria reestablishes Catholicism in Donauwörth.

1607-1608: Formation of Religious Alliances

• The Protestant Union is created (1607), followed by the Catholic League (1608).

1609: Holy Roman Empire's Religious Divide

• The Holy Roman Empire becomes divided along Protestant and Catholic lines.

1609: Treaty of Antwerp

• The Treaty of Antwerp grants independence to the Calvinist northern Netherlands, while the south remains Catholic.

1618: The Thirty Years' War Begins

1619: Ferdinand II Becomes Emperor

• Ferdinand II is crowned the new Holy Roman Emperor.

1629: Edict of Restitution

• The Edict of Restitution is issued, met with strong Protestant opposition.

1635: Richelieu Declares War on Habsburgs

• Cardinal Richelieu declares war on the Habsburgs, with Ottoman support.

1642: Death of Cardinal Richelieu

1648: End of the Thirty Years' War

• The Thirty Years' War concludes, preventing German dominance and establishing France as a new power.

1648: Treaty of Westphalia

• The Treaty of Westphalia solidifies state sovereignty and influences the development of "Protestant science" and law.

Post-Westphalia Europe and the Age of Revolutions (1650-1815)

1650: European Religious Demographics

• Only 20% of Europeans are Protestant.

1688: Glorious Revolution in England

• James II, supported by Louis XIV, is deposed by William of Orange.

1700: Spanish Succession Crisis Begins

• Charles II dies, and Philip V succeeds him.

1701: War of the Spanish Succession

• The War of the Spanish Succession begins.

1714: Treaty of Utrecht

1760: Industrial Revolution Takes Hold

• The Industrial Revolution flourishes in England and the Netherlands.

1776: American Declaration of Independence

1789-1799: The French Revolution

• The French Revolution sees the bourgeoisie gain power.
• Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette of Austria are guillotined.

1810: Napoleon's Marriage to Marie Louise

• Napoleon marries Marie Louise of Austria.

1812-1813: Napoleonic Wars Turn

• 1812: Invasion of Russia.
• 1813: Battle of Leipzig, leading to the Treaty of Paris and Napoleon's exile to Elba.

1815: Battle of Waterloo

• Napoleon is defeated by the Seventh Coalition at the Battle of Waterloo.

1814-1815: Congress of Vienna

• The Congress of Vienna establishes the Metternich system, influencing European politics for 40 years.

Nationalism, Imperialism, and Global Conflict (1830-1920)

1830: Creation of Belgium

1848: Year of Revolutions

• The "Thirty Years' Peace" ends, marked by widespread nationalist and democratic revolutions.

1871: German and Italian Unification

1885: Congress of Berlin

• The Congress of Berlin orchestrates the "Scramble for Africa" and European imperialism.

1891: Bismarck's Dismissal and Weltpolitik

• Bismarck is removed by Wilhelm II, ushering in the era of Weltpolitik.

1904-1905: Russo-Japanese War

• The Russo-Japanese War, including the Battle of Tsushima.

1917: Russian Revolution

• The Russian Revolution, led by the Bolsheviks.

1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

1919: Treaty of Versailles

1920: Formation of the League of Nations