The Dawn of Modernity: Renaissance, Reformation, and Global Discovery

The Modern Age: Defining the Historical Period

The historical period known as the Modern Age spans from the 15th to the 18th century. This period is a subject of debate amongst historians. Most accepted starting dates include the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) or the discovery of America (1492). It is generally considered to end with the French Revolution (1789).

The Modern Age is divided into sub-periods characterized by homogeneous features:

• 16th Century: The Renaissance
• 17th Century: The Baroque
• 18th Century: The Enlightenment and Absolutism

The Age of Geographical Discoveries

Geographical discoveries, primarily made by the Portuguese and Castilians in Africa, America, and Asia, significantly extended the frontiers of the world known to Europeans. Spain and Portugal established extensive colonial empires whose wealth stimulated global trade.

Portuguese Maritime Expansion

In the mid-15th century, Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator encouraged the development of navigation skills and the exploration of the African coast. Portugal's primary aim was to gain access to Sudan's gold supplies and establish trade routes to India via the African coast.

Rivalry with Castile was resolved with the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479. Following this agreement, the Portuguese occupied the Madeira, Azores, and Cape Verde archipelagos, reaching Cape Bojador and the Gulf of Guinea. Key achievements include:

• Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope (1488).
• Vasco da Gama subsequently reached India (1498).

The Reformation: Causes and Abuses

Disdain for the Papacy and Clergy

The Roman Catholic Church was immensely powerful in Europe, but widespread discontent fueled the Reformation. Many believed that popes were concerned primarily with their own interests.

Furthermore, the clergy faced severe criticism:

• Bishops often lived lives of luxury and did not reside in their dioceses.
• Lower-ranking clergy frequently lacked education, failed to preach effectively, and did not set a moral example.

Abuses within the Church

Key abuses practiced by the high-ranking clergy included:

• Nepotism: Favouritism shown to relatives.
• Nicolaism: The practice of clerical marriage or concubinage by many priests.
• Simony: The sale of ecclesiastical posts and spiritual benefits.

The Lutheran Reformation

The renewal of the Church began in Germany, where Martin Luther rejected the sale of indulgences promoted by Pope Leo X to fund building work being undertaken at the Vatican. Lutheranism is fundamentally based on two core tenets:

1. Justification by faith alone (Sola Fide).
2. A free interpretation of the Bible (Sola Scriptura).

Defining the Renaissance

The Renaissance marked a profound shift from the medieval worldview.

Core Characteristics of the Renaissance

• Classical Antiquity as a Model: Philosophical, literary, scientific, and artistic works produced by the Greeks and Romans were studied and used as a primary source of inspiration.
• Anthropocentrism: Mankind was conceived as being at the center of the world, contrasting sharply with the medieval period where a theocentric view of life prevailed (God being at the center).

Artistic Features of the Renaissance

The artistic movement was defined by:

• Classical antiquity providing the artistic model.
• Art being inspired by nature and seeking to represent reality accurately.
• A return to anthropocentrism in subject matter.
• Artists gaining a better social status and fame.