The Dawn of the Early Modern Era: Transformations and Society

The Transition to the Early Modern Period

Defining the Historical Periods

• The Early Modern Period began at the end of the Middle Ages, often marked by the discovery of America in 1492.
• The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 is a significant marker, often cited as the end of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and a key transition point out of the Middle Ages.
• The Middle Ages is generally considered to have ended around 1453 or 1492, and the Early Modern Period concluded with the French Revolution in 1789.

Key Kingdoms and States

The political landscape included:

• Central European Powers: Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of England, Kingdom of Sweden.
• Mediterranean and Eastern Powers: Ottoman Turks, Papal States, Duchies of Burgundy.
• Iberian Kingdoms: Navarra, Aragon, Castilla, Granada, Portugal.

Major Transformations of the Era

Economic Changes

There was important growth in craftwork and trade. Economic expansion resulted from the influx of precious metals.

Cultural Changes

The Renaissance art movement appeared, alongside cultural movements including Humanism, which developed on the Italian Peninsula. Humanism spread rapidly thanks to a revolutionary invention: the printing press.

Religious Changes

The period was marked by religious intolerance and the rise of beliefs that went against the authority of the Pope (leading to the Reformation).

Social Changes

The bourgeoisie became more important, though they never held more power than the nobility or clergy.

Political Changes

Monarchies gained significant power, centralizing authority.

Geographic Discoveries

This involved the discovery of territories previously unknown to Europeans through extensive maritime explorations.

Humanism: Philosophy and Impact

The Doctrine of Humanism

Humanism was a philosophical doctrine that gave more importance to the human rather than divine or supernatural matters. It first began in the 14^th century. It developed fully in the 15^th and 16^th centuries in the rich city-states of the northern part of the Italian Peninsula and spread around Europe. Humanists remained devoted to the Christian faith.

Main Characteristics of Humanism

• Anthropocentrism: Man was the center of historical ways of thinking, utilizing reason and intelligence.
• The Revival of Antiquity: A focus on the classical cultures of Rome and Greece.
• The Love of Knowledge: Humanists were often experts in various fields, such as painting, anatomy, botany, and mechanics.

Social Structure: The Estate Pyramid

The Hierarchy of Estates

The social structure was often represented as a pyramid:

1. King
2. Nobility
3. Clergy

These groups held Privilege: They possessed rights, were exempt from paying taxes, and held administrative roles.

4. Bourgeoisie
5. Peasants

These groups were Non-Privileged: They lacked certain rights and were required to pay taxes.

The Role of the Bourgeoisie and Peasants

The Bourgeoisie were part of the non-privileged estate, but they began to be an economic and intellectual reference point in society. Peasants constituted approximately 70% to 80% of the population.