The Dawn of Complex Societies: Origins and Features

Foundations of Early Civilizations

Pastoralism is the domestication and herding of animals such as goats, sheep, and cattle. It emerged once humans established themselves in one place for extended periods, a process known as sedentism. The slash-and-burn technique, where ash from burned trees fertilized the soil, was another early agricultural method.

Defining Civilization and State

A civilization is a complex society characterized by agricultural surpluses, which enable specialized labor, social hierarchies, and the establishment of cities. Key markers include:

• Writing systems
• Developed religious systems
• Sophisticated architecture
• Centralized political power

A state is an organized community governed by a single political structure.

Societal Structures and Beliefs

Early civilizations were often unified by religion, a system of beliefs and behaviors that addresses the meaning of existence. Social hierarchy, characterized by clear distinctions in status among individuals and groups, was prevalent. Cities further intensified these hierarchies, often based on gender, wealth, and the division of labor.

The Emergence of Writing and Law

Writing emerged in early civilizations as a crucial tool for record-keeping and managing complex institutions. Notable examples include:

• The Oracle Bone inscriptions in Ancient China, used for divination and spiritual associations.
• The Quipu in South America, employed for record-keeping and calculations.

The Code of Hammurabi from Babylon, dating to 1760 BCE, represents one of the first comprehensive legal codes. While widespread literacy was uncommon, the development of writing was profoundly significant for governance and societal organization.

Characteristics and Challenges of Early Societies

Early civilizations exhibited distinct social, political, and environmental characteristics. The production of food surpluses meant not everyone had to engage in food production, allowing for its distribution among society members. This also fostered the evolution of the concept of ownership. Farming underwent intensification, enabling a given land area to sustain significantly more people.

However, these early complex societies were highly sensitive to weather and climate fluctuations, such as floods or droughts. To mitigate these risks and sustain their populations, they anticipated changes by storing food and water.