David Hume's Philosophy: Morality, Empiricism, and Knowledge

Hume's Moral Philosophy: Feelings, Empathy, and Reason

For Hume, freedom is the power to act or not, according to the determinations of the will. The moral distinction lies between virtuous action (morally approved of) and vicious action (not morally approved of). This approval does not come from internal impressions or innate nature. Instead, it stems from feelings and emotions, as nature only provides facts, and moral valuations require more than just pure facts.

Hume distinguishes two types of feelings:

• The Direct: These are tendencies that spontaneously evoke feelings of pain or pleasure in certain situations.
• The Indirect: These arise from thought, stemming from an idea developed from an external impression. This reflection is caused by passion.

Hume asserts that without empathy, there is no morality. Empathy, for Hume, is inherent in all human beings, often manifesting as a concern for oneself, such as selfishness. His morality is not rational. For him, morality exists from the moment a mood leads to a moral judgment. Reason, in this context, serves as a mere tool.

Aristotle, however, opposes this view. For Aristotle, morality arises only when reason dictates what we do with our passions, because by themselves, passions are neither good nor bad; they are simply innate to human beings.

Justice in Hume's Philosophy

Justice is a virtue that emerges from an artificial pact with a specific purpose and public utility. Hume applies a contractualist theory where interests are mutually agreed upon. This is a utilitarian conception.

Hume's Empiricism: The Origin of Knowledge

Hume's empiricism posits that there are no innate ideas, because if they existed, everyone would possess the same ones. The fundamental principle of all knowledge is empirical experience.

The development of abstract knowledge proceeds as follows: The initial data are sensory perceptions, which are divided into two types:

• Impressions: These come directly from sensory experience.
• Ideas: These are reflections on sensory experiences that are not currently present.

A perception is a mental element with two possible origins:

• External Sensitivity: Referring to external objects.
• Internal Sensitivity: Referring to feelings and passions.

The relationship between impressions and ideas can be of two types:

• Simple: Single impressions.
• Complex: Complex ideas formed from simple impressions.

Therefore, if one is able to create new concepts based on ideas, it is clear that a mechanism allows for this. This conception is completely opposed to rationalism. Empiricism proposes that specific ideas derived from sensory elements are the foundational step for developing abstract concepts. Rationalism, conversely, asserts that the understanding of ideas is not derived from sensory elements, which it often considers problematic or secondary.