Core Concepts in Psychology: Learning and Behavior

Classical Conditioning and Pavlovian Learning

• Definition: Learning through association, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov (1904 Nobel Prize).
• The Procedure: The famous experiment involving a dog, a bell, and food.
• The Four Pillars:
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response.
  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to the UCS.
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after pairing.
  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS.
• Principles:
  • Acquisition: The initial pairing phase.
  • Extinction: When the CS no longer triggers the CR.
  • Generalization: Reacting to stimuli similar to the CS.
• Application: Understanding phobias and celebrity branding in advertising.

Operant Conditioning and Skinner’s Theory

• Reinforcement: Increases behavior. Positive adds a reward; Negative removes an unpleasant stimulus.
• Punishment: Decreases behavior. Positive adds an unpleasant stimulus; Negative removes a reward.
• Skinner Box: An experimental chamber used to study rat behavior via levers.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The pyramid structure includes: Physiological → Safety → Social → Esteem → Self-Actualization.

• Core Principle: Lower-level needs must be satisfied before progressing higher.
• Humanistic View: Emphasizes human potential and personal growth.

Thinking and Problem Solving

• Building Blocks: Mental images, concepts, and propositions.
• Barriers:
  • Mental Set: Relying on old habits.
  • Functional Fixedness: Seeing objects only for their traditional use.
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts, including Availability and Representativeness.

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

Perception is the process of organizing sensory information. The Gestalt motto states: "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."

• Figure-Ground: Distinguishing an object from its background.
• Proximity: Grouping nearby objects together.
• Similarity: Grouping objects that look alike.
• Continuity: Preferring smooth, continuous patterns.
• Closure: The brain filling in gaps to perceive a complete object.

Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing

• Bottom-Up: Starting with raw sensory data (e.g., recognizing lines to identify a letter).
• Top-Down: Using past experiences and expectations (e.g., reading misspelled words in context).

Understanding Psychological Illusions

Illusions are defined as misinterpretations of sensory information.

• Müller-Lyer Illusion: Equal lines appearing different due to arrow directions.
• Ames Room: A distorted room creating size illusions.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Stages of Memory

• Sensory Memory: Includes Iconic (visual) and Echoic (auditory) memory.
• Short-Term Memory (STM): Often called "working memory," with a capacity of 7 ± 2 items and a 30-second duration.
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent storage achieved through rehearsal.

Clark Hull’s Drive-Reduction Model

Core Concept: Motivation stems from physiological needs that create a state of tension called a Drive.

The Process: Need (Biological) → Drive (Psychological Tension) → Action → Need Satisfaction.

• Homeostasis: The goal of returning the body to internal equilibrium.
• Drives:
  • Primary: Innate biological needs (thirst, sleep).
  • Secondary: Learned associations (money, power).
• Habit Strength: Successful drive reduction reinforces behavior via operant conditioning.

Maslow’s Motivation Model and Self-Actualization

This humanistic perspective suggests five progressive levels of needs:

Deficiency Needs (Lower Level)

• Physiological: Survival basics like food and water.
• Safety: Security and protection.
• Social/Belonging: Love, friendship, and acceptance.

Growth Needs (Higher Level)

• Esteem: Self-respect and external recognition.
• Self-Actualization: Reaching full potential.

The Progression Principle: Movement to higher levels occurs once lower needs are substantially met. Self-actualizers are reality-centered, spontaneous, and purpose-driven.