The Congress of Vienna and the Rise of Modern Ideologies

Restoration, Liberalism, and Nationalism

The Restoration of Europe

Between 1814 and 1815, the nations that defeated Napoleon met at the Congress of Vienna, following a proposal by the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. Their primary goal was the restoration of monarchical absolutism.

After reinstating monarchs to their thrones, the four great powers—Russia, Britain, Prussia, and Austria—redrew the map of Europe for their own benefit, disregarding the national aspirations of the people. France was returned to its 1792 borders, and the Napoleonic Empire was divided among the victors.

The decisions of the Congress of Vienna were complemented by the Holy Alliance (1815), a treaty of mutual assistance among European monarchs against the threat of liberal revolution. This agreement established the right of military intervention and mandated regular conferences to maintain absolutist order in Europe.

Despite the apparent return of the Old Regime, the ideas generated by the French Revolution persisted. After 1815, liberalism and nationalism emerged as the two primary forces of opposition to the Restoration.

Liberalism

Liberalism is a political system centered on the individual. The state must ensure the rights and freedoms of its citizens, who collectively hold national sovereignty.

• Representative System: Decisions emanate from an elected parliament that creates laws.
• Constitutionalism: A constitution is required to ensure the separation of powers and prevent tyranny.
• Economic Freedom: Property rights are fundamental, and the state should not intervene in market affairs.

Nationalism

Nationalism is a political ideology asserting the right of peoples to self-determination and sovereignty. A nation is defined as a group of individuals sharing cultural ties—such as religion, language, traditions, and history—who wish to live together.

During the 19th century, nationalism grew in defense of free nations against the Holy Alliance and absolutist empires. It sought to align the state with the nation by regrouping members of a national community within shared borders.

This desire fueled:

• Separatist movements within the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires.
• The struggle to unify Italy and Germany into single states.