Conditioning and Cognitive Processes in Human Learning

Defining Learning and Behavior Change

Learning influences living organisms. It is a permanent change in behavior that reflects the acquisition of knowledge or skill. Through experience or study, learning may include instruction, observation, and practical application. Theoretical concepts explain the continuous acquisition of behavior, conditions, and learning processes.

Innate Behavior Patterns

Reflexes

A reflex is a behavior reflecting part of the genetic program of a species. It is an innate, automatic, and involuntary response produced as a reaction to a specific stimulus. This response allows for a rapid adjustment of conduct and facilitates well-being.

Fixed Action Patterns (FAPs)

These are complex, characteristic vital actions defined by:

• Specificity of the species
• Stereotyped nature
• Not learned
• Resistant to change
• Triggered by a single stimulus

Habituation and Sensitization

• Habituation: A phenomenon where, as a consequence of repeated stimulation, the response to the stimulus decreases.
• Sensitization: An augmented reaction to an environmental event.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Observational learning happens when a subject observes a behavior pattern. The processes involved are:

1. Acquisition
2. Retention
3. Execution
4. Consequences

Imitation of a model is often enhanced by broadcast media. Models are more effective if their words and actions are consistent.

Cognitive Learning

Learning stems from the subject's experience, but the subject actively constructs knowledge of the external world, interprets reality, and projects significant meaning. Ausubel emphasized integrating and assimilating new information into our previous knowledge structure.

Types of Learning

• Behavioral (events)
• Social (social skills)
• Verbal
• Procedural

Behavioral Conditioning

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Classical conditioning occurs when a subject learns the relations between stimuli. Pavlov demonstrated that organisms respond biologically as a result of learning (e.g., dogs salivating before seeing food). The process involves the mechanism of associating reflexes to establish new responses to previously neutral stimuli (e.g., bell sound paired with food presentation).

Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning

Instrumental or operant conditioning refers to voluntary behavior. It is learning a relationship where a response is strengthened or weakened based on its consequences (positive or negative). The organism operates on the environment through voluntary responses to cause a desirable result.

Key Concepts in Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Reinforcement: A stimulus that increases the probability of a behavior. Types include:
  • Primary
  • Secondary
  • Positive (+)
  • Negative (-)
• Punishment: A consequence applied for an undesired behavior. Punishment serves as a threat to achieve adherence to certain standards and aims to decrease the behavior that follows an aversive stimulus.

Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement schedules are patterns and rules that indicate when and how the reinforcing stimulus will follow a response. Schedules can be:

• Continuous Reinforcement: (e.g., sealing/stamping every time)
• Intermittent Reinforcement: (e.g., occasional payouts)

Ratio Schedules (Based on Responses)

• Fixed Ratio (FR): A sudden strengthening of response frequency after a stable number of responses.
• Variable Ratio (VR): The number of responses required for reinforcement varies randomly.

Interval Schedules (Based on Time)

• Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a fixed time interval (e.g., waiting for a washing machine cycle to finish).
• Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement is delivered after a time interval that varies across trials (e.g., checking for mechanical maintenance issues).