Communication Theory Foundations: Shannon & Schramm Models

Claude Shannon: Information Theory Pioneer

Claude Elwood Shannon (Michigan, 1916-2001) was a foundational figure in information theory. His work, often associated with Warren Weaver, focused on the effective transmission of information through a channel, addressing technical problems related to the meaning and desired meaning of messages.

Shannon-Weaver Model Concepts (1948)

The model, influential in cognitive psychology, describes how a subject searches, selects, transforms, and reproduces information, adjusting the sender's action based on feedback. Key elements include:

• Transmitter and Receiver: The tools or devices used in communication.
• Communication Channels & Codes: Compatible channels and codes are essential for effective communication within a shared physical environment.
• Encode and Decode: The processes of organizing a message to be consistent with the channel and interpreting it upon reception.
• Noise: Elements added to the message within the channel that can distort it.

Types of Noise and Related Concepts:

• Channel Overload: Too many signals at once.
• Redundancy: The same information transmitted through different channels or repeated within a message.
• Entropy: Disorder or unexpected information, which can reduce predictability.

Wilbur Schramm: Communication Models & Effects

Wilbur Lang Schramm (Ohio, 1907-1987) was a key figure in communication studies, particularly after 1954 in the U.S. His work marked a significant paradigm shift from behaviorist to functionalist perspectives, emphasizing a society of free, rational, and autonomous individuals within a free market of ideas. This shift viewed media as instruments of diffusion with a relatively weak direct influence, moving from a "public as passive recipient" to a more active "public asset" view.

Schramm's Two-Step Flow Model

A major change in perspective led to Schramm's influential model: the two-step flow of communication. This model posits that information flows from media to opinion leaders, and then from these leaders to the broader public, who are influenced by them rather than being in isolation. Opinion leaders play a crucial role in shaping opinions, thereby minimizing the direct, strong influence of mass media.

Elements of Communication in Schramm's Model

Schramm defined communication as sharing, requiring three necessary elements:

• Source: The person or organization providing information.
• Message: The content or mode of expression.
• Destination: The person or audience receiving the message.

To share a message, it must be codified so it can exist across space and time. This requires a technical channel between the transmitter and receiver. Schramm's model considers three crucial functions:

• Encode: The process of preparing the message.
• Decode: The process of interpreting the message.
• Interpret: The process of understanding the message's meaning.

A key variance in Schramm's model is that the sender and receiver are not dealing with a single message but often a group of messages. While useful for interpersonal communication, Schramm's initial model was modified to better account for mass communication.

Mass Communication & Effects

In mass communication, the process becomes more complex: a second decoder and encoder are involved, interpreting and shaping events into news. A multitude of messages are sent to mass audiences, and receivers decode and interpret each part of a message group, reinterpreting feedback from the mass audience.

A central concern in Schramm's work was the study of effects. Effects are often hard to predict, with greater success if the message is consistent with the receiver's existing beliefs. Communication outcomes are the result of several elements, and the communicator controls only one: the message itself. This perspective helped to overcome the "hypodermic needle" theory, which suggested direct and total manipulation by media.