A climb gradient required is 3,3%.

Cliff erosion is a continuing process. Wave refraction causes eroding energy to rap around jutting headlands, narrowing them and eventually creating Tombolos and eventually offshore islands.

1. Build 5 or more meters above normal hightide.

2. Build in a spot with numerous high dunes between the proposed building and water.

3. Determine the rate of coastline erosion in the immediate vicinity.

1. Reduction of slope angle

2. Terracing

3. Placement of additional supporting material at the base of the slope.

4. Removal of soil, rock, or artificial structures high on the slope to reduce the mass.

1. Doors or windows stack or jam for the first time.

2. New cracks appear in plaster, tile, brick or foundations.

3. Outside walls, walks, or stairs begin to pull away from the building.

4. Water breaks through ground surface in new locations.

5. Collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks.

Developed countries produce more waste per capita because they have higher levels of consumption. There are higher proportions of plastics, metals, and papers in municipal solid waste. On the other hand, developing countries produce lower levels of waste per capita with a higher proportion of organic material (biodegradable). Waste management is generally a higher proportion of municipal expenditure.

They are a more composite material and its more difficult to separate into like components. Source separation is required for all recycling.

For example, paper, unlike plastic and glass, is easier to decompose and produce again. Glass costs much more to break it down (melt it) and do something with it (the procedure is more expensive). Like is cheaper and easier to produce a plastic bottle from scratch than using recycled plastic

Urbanization: increases runoff and decreases infiltration.

Ex: Via Argentina, El Cangrejo, Panama.

Asphalt and cement replace natural ground cover, increased runoff and decrease infiltration are inevitable.

Flooding will occur without adequate drainage. Adequate drainage comes with a great cost.

Dams: May discharge huge volumes of water very rapidly to safeguard the integrity of dams after or during the heavy precipitation.

Ex: Gatun or Alajuela (2010)

Destruction of vegetation: More runoff and also allows soil to be eroded upstream for deposition downstream which fills up downstream channels leaving less volume for the stream to carry.

Except water spills out and over leeves the flood downstream floodplains.

1. Installation of rock berms

2. Sandbangs

3. Leeves

4. Dikes

5. Detention basins

6. Maintaining normal slopes with vegetation.