Classical Conditioning Principles and Learning Theories

Classical Conditioning Principles

Acquisition: The process where a stimulus elicits a conditioned response (CR). Acquisition is quicker if the stimulus is salient; the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and conditioned stimulus (CS) are paired multiple times.

Extinction

Extinction: The elimination of the CR due to withholding the UCS; extinction is a gradual change.

Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous Recovery: The recovery of the CR after extinction; a weakened CR can still exist.

Generalization

Generalization: When a CR is acquired, stimuli similar to the CS can evoke the response. Generalization can contribute to the development of phobias.

Discrimination

Discrimination: A CR is produced only if a unique stimulus is presented; discrimination involves associating a specific stimulus with reward or consequence.

Overshadowing

Overshadowing: A stronger stimulus overshadows a weaker stimulus and becomes conditioned more easily. The more salient stimulus is more likely to be learned (see Kamin study).

Blocking

Blocking: A stimulus paired with a UCS may fail to become a CS when it is redundant because an already established CS predicts the UCS.

Historical and Theoretical Concepts

Tabula Rasa: John Locke's idea that the mind begins as a blank slate.

Opponent Process Theory

Opponent Process Theory: An A-process is elicited by an emotional event; a B-process follows. With repetition, the B-process increases in strength and duration.

Pavlovian Examples and Definitions

Pavlov:

• Food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
• Salivating to food is an unconditioned response (UCR).
• Metronome (or bell) serves as a conditioned stimulus (CS) after pairing with food.
• Salivating to the metronome is a conditioned response (CR).

Key Term Definitions

• UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): A naturally occurring stimulus that elicits a response (e.g., the smell of food).
• UCR (Unconditioned Response): The unlearned response that naturally follows the UCS (e.g., salivation at the smell of food).
• CS (Conditioned Stimulus): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, elicits a learned response (e.g., hearing a whistle paired with food).
• CR (Conditioned Response): The learned response (e.g., feeling hungry when hearing a whistle).

Learning and Classical Conditioning

Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience; it occurs when changes in behavior can be measured or recorded.

Classical Conditioning Characteristics

Classical Conditioning: Involves involuntary or reflexive behaviors associated with environmental signals that produce new responses.

Major Theorists and Approaches

• René Descartes: Distinguished body (instincts/reflexes) from mind (free will).
• British Empiricists: Associationism — learning as the result of repeated exposure and temporal contiguity.
• B. F. Skinner: Radical behaviorism — analyze conditions present before behavior and the consequences of behavior.
• Hull: Stimulus-response (S-R) theory.
• Tolman: Cognitive approach to behavior — behavior can be goal-oriented.

Types of Responses and Contiguity

Overt: Observable behavior with little ambiguity.

Appetitive: Behaviors in which organisms seek an event.

Contiguity

Contiguity: If events occur close together in time or space, they are more likely to form an association.

• Temporal contiguity: Stimuli occur close in time and thus form associations.
• Spatial contiguity: Stimuli occur close to each other in space and form associations faster than if they are far apart.

Additional Notes

The following original concepts and phrases have been retained and corrected for spelling and clarity. All core ideas and examples are preserved.

Original short phrases preserved and clarified: Acquisition: process where a stimulus elicits CR; quicker if stimulus is salient; UCS/CS paired multiple times. Extinction: elimination of CR due to withholding UCS; gradual change. Spontaneous Recovery: recovery of the CR; a weakened CR still exists. Generalization: causes phobias; when a CR is acquired, stimuli like the CS evoke the response. Discrimination: CR produced only if unique stimulus presented; involves associating stimulus with reward. Overshadowing: stronger stimulus overshadows the other and is conditioned easily; the more salient, the stronger (Kamin study). Blocking: stimulus paired with UCS unable to produce CS since it is redundant, occurs because an already established CS exists. Tabula Rasa: John Locke. Opponent Process Theory: A-process elicited by an emotional event; B-process increases in strength and duration with repetition. Pavlov: Food is a UCS; Salivating to food: UCR; Metronome: CS; Salivating to Metronome: CR.

UCS: unconditioned, naturally elicits a response (e.g., smell of food).
UCR: unlearned response that comes naturally to the UCS (e.g., salivation at smell of food).
CS: previously neutral; after association with UCS, elicits a triggered response eventually (e.g., hearing a whistle while smelling food — whistle becomes CS).
CR: the learned response (e.g., feeling hungry when hearing a whistle).

Learning: relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience; occurs when changes in behavior can be measured/recorded.

Classical Conditioning: involuntary/reflexive behaviors associated with environmental signals to produce new responses.

René Descartes: body — instincts/reflexes; mind — free will.
British Empiricists: associationism — learning because of repeated exposure and temporal contiguity.
B. F. Skinner: radical behaviorism — analyze conditions present before behavior and consequences of behavior.
Hull: stimulus-response theory.
Tolman: cognitive approach to behavior (goal-oriented).

Overt: observable, little ambiguity; Appetitive: seek event.

Contiguity: if events occur close together in time or space, they form associations.
Temporal contiguity: stimuli occur close in time form associations.
Spatial contiguity: stimuli occur close to each other form associations faster than when apart.