Catholic Monarchs: Spain's Unification & Expansion

The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs

Domestic Policy of the Catholic Monarchs

Dynastic Union: Castile and Aragon

The Catholic Monarchs achieved the territorial unification of the Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal. Through the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the two kingdoms were united under the same monarchs. However, each kingdom maintained its own distinct institutions, laws, currencies, and languages.

Administrative Reforms and Royal Power

The monarchs implemented several reforms to centralize power and improve governance:

• Royal Council (Consejo Real): Strengthened as the primary advisory and governmental body, diminishing the political role of the Cortes (parliamentary assemblies).
• Permanent Army: Establishment of a professional and permanent royal army, reducing reliance on feudal levies and increasing royal military strength.
• Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad): A centralized police force created by grouping local militias, responsible for maintaining order and security in rural areas and on roads, thereby combating banditry.
• Justice System: Reorganization of the justice system with the establishment of Audiencias and Chancillerías (royal high courts, e.g., in Valladolid and Granada). These institutions aimed to assert royal jurisdiction over seigneurial courts and provide a more uniform application of law.
• Royal Treasury (Hacienda Real): Reforms were undertaken to improve the efficiency of tax collection and the administration of royal finances.
• Local Government: Appointment of Corregidores, royal officials with broad administrative and judicial powers, to oversee municipalities and extend royal authority at the local level, often overriding local oligarchies.

Nobility: Submission and Influence

The monarchs aimed to reduce the political influence of the high nobility and prevent them from interfering in state affairs, consolidating royal authority. While their political power was curtailed, nobles retained considerable economic power, land ownership, and social prestige.

Religious Unification Policy

Religious unity was considered essential by the Catholic Monarchs to ensure the political and social cohesion of their newly unified state. Key aspects of this policy included:

• In 1478, the Spanish Inquisition was established in Castile (and later extended to Aragon). Its primary purpose was to ensure the orthodoxy of conversos (Jews who had converted to Christianity) and to prosecute those suspected of secretly practicing Judaism or other heresies.
• In 1492, following the conquest of Granada, a decree was issued for the expulsion of Jews from Castile and Aragon who refused to convert to Christianity.
• Initially, after the conquest of Granada (1492), the Muslim population was granted terms that allowed them to retain their property, laws, customs, language, and religion. However, this policy was later tightened, particularly under the influence of Cardinal Cisneros, who implemented measures leading to forced conversions. This provoked a rebellion in the Alpujarras (1499-1501). After the rebellion was suppressed, Muslims in Castile were compelled to choose between conversion to Christianity or exile.
• The majority of Muslims chose conversion, becoming known as Moriscos. However, many Moriscos were suspected of continuing to practice Islamic rites and customs in private, leading to ongoing tensions.

Foreign Policy and Expansion

The foreign policy of the Catholic Monarchs had two primary objectives:

• The diplomatic isolation of France, their main European rival, through a network of strategic marriage alliances with other European powers, including the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Portugal.
• Territorial expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula.

Territorial Expansion: Aragon and Castile

• Crown of Aragon (under Ferdinand II): Maintained its traditional orientation towards the Mediterranean Sea. This included the successful conquest and annexation of the Kingdom of Naples (completed by 1504), reinforcing Aragonese influence in Italy.
• Crown of Castile (under Isabella I): Focused on two main avenues of expansion:
  • North Africa: The policy aimed at securing strategic enclaves on the North African coast to protect Spanish shores and trade routes, and as a continuation of the Reconquista. This led to the capture of cities such as Melilla (1497), Oran (1509), and expeditions towards Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli.
  • Atlantic Ocean: This involved the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands, which served as a crucial staging post. Most significantly, Castilian-sponsored voyages, notably those of Christopher Columbus, led to the discovery of America in 1492, opening vast new territories for exploration and colonization.