The Catholic Monarchs, Global Expansion, and Ancient Empires

Achieving Religious Unity in Spain

The Catholic Monarchs implemented policies aimed at establishing religious uniformity:

• The Spanish Inquisition (1478): They created this religious court to prosecute those who did not strictly follow Catholicism.
• Granada and the Muslims: In 1492, they signed the Capitulaciones de Granada with King Boabdil, initially respecting the religion of the kingdom's people. However, in 1499, Cardinal Cisneros, advisor to the monarchs, forced Muslims to convert or leave Spain. Those who converted were known as Moriscos.
• Expulsion of the Jews (1492): They also forced Jews to convert to Catholicism or leave Spain.

The Age of Great Expeditions

Reasons for Global Expansion

• Trade Routes: It was necessary to find alternative routes to the East after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
• Territorial Expansion: Portugal and Spain sought to expand their territories.
• Technical Advances: Key innovations included the compass and the astrolabe, facilitating long-distance navigation.

Portugal's Maritime Achievements

• Prince Henry the Navigator promoted these explorations.
• Portugal discovered and conquered the Azores, Madeira, and Cabo Verde.
• Bartolomé Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope.
• Vasco da Gama reached India.
• They founded cities in India and China, such as Macao (which remained part of Portugal until 1999). (Note: Portugal handed over Macao to China on December 20th, 1999.)

Spain's Discoveries

• Cristóbal Colón discovered America in 1492. He signed the Capitulaciones de Santa Fe with the Catholic Monarchs to secure support for his project.
• Colón established the first European settlements in America and completed four voyages.

Treaties and Circumnavigation

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

The Spanish and the Portuguese signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, which established an imaginary line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, dividing newly discovered lands between the two powers.

First Voyage Around the World (1519–1522)

This historic journey was initiated by Ferdinand Magellan and completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano.

Pre-Columbian Civilizations

The Mayans

• Location: They lived in the Yucatán Peninsula.
• Organization: They were organized into independent city-states.
• Economy: Based primarily on crops like corn, tomatoes, cocoa, and beans.
• Culture: They had a very advanced culture, utilizing the concept of zero, possessing knowledge of astronomy, and developing a complex calendar.

The Aztecs

• Location: They lived in Central Mexico; their capital was Tenochtitlan.
• Military and Society: They maintained a great army. Their society was controlled by the nobility and priests, and they utilized slaves.
• Economy: Based on corn cultivation and trade.
• Religion: They were polytheistic and practiced human sacrifices.

The Incas

• Location: They formed a great empire in South America.
• Government: The emperor was considered a living God. The population was required to work certain days for the state (known as mita).
• Economy: Based on agriculture and livestock.
• Religion: Polytheistic.
• Infrastructure: They built large stone cities, maintained an advanced government structure, and developed an extensive network of roads.