Baroque Era: Crisis and Shift in Power

Historical Context (16th & 17th Centuries)

The Renaissance marked a return to classical ideals. In contrast, the Baroque period was a time of crisis, particularly for Spain, which lost its hegemony. Several problems arose:

Societal Shifts

After the Renaissance, the economic and cultural center shifted from Italy and Spain to France, Holland, and England. This led to a societal crisis:

• Economic Crisis: Agriculture-based economies suffered from poor harvests and famine.
• Social Hierarchy: Existing class structures began to crumble.
• Political Instability: Wars and revolts were common.

Religious and Intellectual Upheavals

• Religious Conflicts: The Reformation and Counter-Reformation caused tension between Catholics and Protestants.
• Scientific Revolution: A growing distrust of authority, tradition, faith, and common sense led to skepticism. Two main camps emerged:

Rationalism (Plato)

Rationalists emphasized reason and mathematics as models of knowledge. They distrusted the senses and believed in innate ideas.

Empiricism (Aristotle)

Empiricists distrusted speculative reason and believed that knowledge begins with sensory data. They rejected the concept of innate ideas.

Attempted Solutions

Several solutions were proposed to address these crises:

• Mercantilism
• Domestic support
• Absolutism/Liberalism with contractual conduct of the state
• Printing Press
• Academies

Rationalism

Rationalism valued reason, giving it autonomy from tradition, authority, and faith. Reason was seen as the ultimate judge of truth and desirability, both in theory and in moral and political practice. This philosophical trend emerged in the 17th century as a counterpoint to empiricism. Rationalists, such as Descartes, Spinoza, Malebranche, and Leibniz, believed that true knowledge comes not from the senses but from understanding itself.

Enlightenment (18th Century)

The 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment, championed reason as the guiding principle for progress. The liberal revolution challenged absolutism and the old regime (e.g., the French Revolution of 1789). Enlightened reason emphasized autonomy (Sapere Aude) and critically analyzed reason's limits. Philosophers like Wolff (dogmatic rationalism, influenced by Leibniz) and Hume (skepticism) contributed to this discourse. Kant's critical philosophy synthesized rationalism and empiricism.