Augustine and Aquinas: Medieval Philosophy, Knowledge, and the Five Ways

Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430)

Born in 354, Saint Augustine spent his youth in Algeria. Educated with Christian beliefs, he soon changed his allegiance to Manichaeism, which posits that two poles (good and evil) are constantly struggling. Eventually, he abandoned Manichaeism and joined Neoplatonism. He converted to Christianity in 387 and later became the Bishop of Hippo.

Augustine's Theological and Political Contributions

Augustine worked extensively against church schisms, notably intervening against Donatism and Pelagianism (which argued that good practice alone is sufficient for salvation). His major work is The City of God. He died in 430, shortly before the traditional date for the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476).

The Pursuit of Supreme Good: Three Levels of Knowledge

Augustine attempted to reach the supreme good through three levels of knowledge:

1. Sensitive Knowledge: This captures the appearance of truth but is not highly useful.
2. Rational Knowledge: This compares the data received by the senses and differentiates humans from animals.
3. Contemplative Knowledge: This is a superior knowledge of ideas, achieved without needing external sensory or rational power. Through this, we reach the absolute truth, which grants supreme happiness.

God's presence is proved necessary to become present in our interior. Man is composed of body and soul, a concept Augustine relates to classical philosophy (referencing Socrates' view).

Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274)

Thomas Aquinas was born in 1224 at Roccasecca Castle, North of Naples. In 1252, he occupied a professorship in Paris. He later returned to Italy, dedicating himself to teaching and the reinterpretation of Aristotle's work. He died in 1274, living during times of significant social and political upheaval.

Socio-Political Context and Scholasticism

The era was marked by a socio-economic divide among the people, nobility, and clergy. The common people supported the others by working in the field. Frequent wars forced many to abandon work and join the army. Life revolved around monasteries, which served as centers of real power—political, economic, and cultural.

The period saw Church-State confrontation, often resulting in alliances to expand domains. Despite cultural decay, major authors' works were taken up again. Schools were formed and directed by the "Scholastics," who taught seven subjects (literature, science, theology, and law). The emergence of universities in the 12th century (XII) belonged to the Scholastic tradition.

Faith, Reason, and the Existence of God

Aquinas sought to integrate reason with faith to obtain three types of truths:

1. Faith: Creation of the world.
2. Reason: Physics/Natural Science.
3. Faith + Reason: God.

While Saint Augustine emphasized the order of the heart, Saint Thomas Aquinas emphasized the intellectual order. Faith and reason are the two main ways to acquire knowledge, and the unique way to know the existence of God is through reason applied to observation.

The Five Ways Proving God's Existence

Aquinas proposed five ways (proofs) demonstrating the existence of God:

1. Movement: Everything that moves is moved by something else; therefore, there must be an Unmovable First Mover, which is God.
2. Causality: Everything that exists is caused by something else; there must be a First Cause, which is God.
3. Contingency of Beings: Contingent beings (those that might not exist) require a Necessary Existent Being that does not depend on others, which is God.
4. Degrees of Perfection: Since different creatures possess varying degrees of perfection, there must be a maximum standard of perfection, which is God.
5. Cosmic Order: The universe is an ordered whole, requiring a Supreme Intelligence to direct it, which is God.

Conclusion on Natural Law

Aquinas, influenced by Aristotle, sought happiness through order, which requires God. We pursue natural law: "Do good and avoid evil."