Athenian Democracy: Institutions and Core Principles

Institutions of Mature Athenian Democracy

The mature Athenian democratic system was defined by several key institutions, each playing a vital role in governance. Below is a characterization of these essential elements, their functions, and their positive and negative aspects.

1. The Popular Assembly (Ekklesia)

• Was open to all male citizens over 20 years of age.
• They met approximately 40 times a year, plus special sessions.
• Represented the supreme public authority of the body politic.
• Athenians debated and voted on major issues of state, including:
  • Modifying or rejecting enacted legislative measures submitted by the Council of 500.
  • Approving declarations of war and signing peace treaties or alliances.
  • Voting on direct taxes and deciding on the use of public funds.

2. The Council of 500 (Boule)

• Served as the executive committee and directed the Assembly's agenda.
• Composed of 50 members from each of the 10 tribes of Athens, chosen randomly (by lot).
• Key Responsibilities:
  • Oversaw the administration of Athens and prepared the agenda for the Assembly meeting.
  • Proposed appropriate policies and prepared draft legislation for discussion.
  • Administered absolute control over public finances, public property, the use of taxes, and received foreign embassies.

3. The Courts and Judges (Dikasteria)

• The courts had the task of controlling magistrates and enforcing the law.
• Composed of citizens (the demos), recorded in a list of 6,000, chosen by lot. Juries typically ranged from 200 to 500 members, who had to be 30 years of age or older.
• Functions and Accountability:
  • Jurors acted simultaneously as judges and jury.
  • Issued judgments in civil and criminal cases. The court acted on behalf of the people, deciding on guilt, imposing penalties, and ensuring justice was served.
  • The control of magistrates was maintained through fitness tests (dokimasia) before assuming office. After the mandate, all acts were subject to a special audit of accounts and a review of public fund management.

4. The Ten Generals (Strategoi)

• Directly elected by the Assembly (unlike most other officials chosen by lot).
• Could integrate the Areopagus (specifically for certain criminal cases).
• They had great influence on the decisions of the Council and the Assembly due to their expertise and elected status.

Essential Elements of Athenian Democracy

The core values and principles that defined the Athenian system included:

• It was a government of laws, not men.
• Free male citizens were not subject to the arbitrary will of despots, ensuring equality before the law (isonomia).
• Civil liberty and equal rights for all citizens.
• Public administration was in the hands of the mass of citizens, not a privileged minority.
• Nobody held a position by birthright, nor could they purchase one.
• There was constant turnover in public office, preventing the concentration of power.
• Appointment to positions like judge or president of the Council and the Assembly was random (by lot).
• All citizens had an equal opportunity to occupy a position and demonstrate their capabilities.

Positive and Negative Aspects

The Athenian system, while revolutionary, had inherent strengths and weaknesses:

• Negative Aspect: It was often a "government of beginners." Since governance was primarily in the hands of ordinary citizens, there were few professional public servants, soldiers, or judges who made the laws in a professional manner.
• Positive Aspect: Excellence was equivalent to good citizenship, and this demanded education, which was received by all citizens in Athens.