Aristotle's Philosophy of Soul, Virtues, and Happiness

The Soul and Its Essence

Like Plato, Aristotle believed that humans are composed of body and soul. He viewed the soul as the form of the body, making it the essence of humanity. Aristotle distinguished three types of souls:

• Vegetative (plants)
• Sensitive (animals)
• Rational (humans)

Each type of soul imbues the being with its own tendencies. Humans, possessing a rational soul, are distinguished by their capacity for reason.

Human Activity and its Purpose

Aristotle argued that all human activity aims towards a certain end. He differentiated between praxis, actions performed for their own sake, and poiesis, actions performed for the sake of something external. He posited that the ultimate aim of humanity is eudaimonia, often translated as happiness or flourishing—the supreme good. Unlike animals, humans require more than tangible goods to achieve happiness.

The Role of Virtues

Aristotle believed that intelligence, specifically the virtue of wisdom (sophia), is crucial for achieving true happiness, though it must be combined with other virtues and external goods. He argued that virtues are not innate but acquired through practice, habit, and will. He distinguished two types of virtues:

• Moral or ethical virtues: Primarily residing in the irrational part of the soul (sensory).
• Dianoetic virtues: Belonging to the intellect (nous) and acquired through education. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed knowledge could be transmitted.

Moral Virtues

Aristotle emphasized that moral virtues represent a mean between extremes. Examples include:

• Temperance (between debauchery and insensitivity)
• Courage (between fear and recklessness)
• Generosity (in relation to possessions and their use)

Dianoetic Virtues

Dianoetic virtues pertain to the rational part of humans and the pursuit of knowledge and truth. Aristotle divided the rational part into two functions:

• Scientific: Deals with unchanging realities.
• Deliberative: Deals with contingent realities.

Within the scientific function, intellectual virtues include:

• Episteme (scientific knowledge): Achieved through demonstration and argumentation, either by induction or deduction.
• Nous (intuitive reason): The immediate grasp of self-evident truths.
• Sophia (theoretical wisdom): Episteme and nous applied to the most abstract objects (mathematics, metaphysics).

Within the deliberative function, intellectual virtues include:

• Techne (art): A productive virtue related to poiesis. It emphasizes knowing how to make something, not just making it.
• Phronesis (prudence): A virtue related to practical action (praxis). It guides us to act well in the realm of good and evil.