Aristotle's Philosophy: Happiness, Virtue, and the Polis

Aristotle on Happiness and Contemplative Life

Aristotle identifies happiness with purely intellectual activity or contemplative life. While not excluding other virtues, Aristotle privileges intellectual virtues over moral virtues. He argues that intellectual pursuits require fewer external goods, making them less susceptible to the vagaries of fortune and the risks of scarcity. Indeed, Aristotle states, "The wise is sufficient unto itself and does not need anything or anyone to be happy."

The Polis and the Good Life

For Aristotle, the polis (city-state) serves a higher purpose than the family or the village. It is not merely concerned with biological needs or the satisfaction of immediate vital necessities, but with living well. This "living well" represents the fullness or perfection of human nature. Man, according to Aristotle, is by nature a "political animal" and, by virtue of his linguistic capacity, "is the only animal that has speech (logos)."

The Role of Speech in Civic Life

Speech is used to express more than just primary sensations of pleasure or pain. It serves as a vehicle for conveying a sense of good and evil, right and wrong. The civic realm is where man, through dialogue with others, deliberates and judges these matters.

The Distinction Between the Polis and the Oikos

Aristotle excludes from the political field the management of the house (oikos), which encompasses parental authority, the domain of slaves, and the relationship between husband and wife. The oikos is governed by a despotic, paternal, or aristocratic authority, depending on the deliberative capacity of the slave, the child, and the wife. Domestic governance approaches monarchy, whereas the rules of city governance do not, as the latter is characterized by a horizontal relationship.

Virtue and Happiness

"Virtues" are those activities through which excellence or perfection is achieved in the realization of something. Since these activities are considered the best from a rational standpoint, Aristotle concludes that happiness consists in virtue.

Virtue as a Disposition

Virtue is a firm disposition, guided by the will, to do good. It is acquired through effort and education, forming the habit in question. Aristotle distinguishes between "ethical virtues" and "dianoetic virtues":

• Ethical virtues are virtues of character and habits, such as courage, justice, generosity, etc.
• Dianoetic virtues perfect the intellectual part of the soul. These include art, intelligence, wisdom, and prudence.

The Importance of Prudence

To form a virtuous character, Aristotle emphasizes the need for cultivating prudence. Prudence is an intellectual virtue that enables one to deliberate effectively, arrive at sound judgments, and decide what to do in each situation. Aristotle posits that virtue consists in the "golden mean," a balance between two equally vicious extremes, one of excess and one of deficiency.

Happiness: Virtue and External Goods

Aristotle asserts that happiness consists in virtue. However, he acknowledges that certain external conditions, such as health, wealth, and friends, contribute to happiness. He does not disregard the role of pleasure and good fortune. Nevertheless, Aristotle maintains that virtue is central to happiness. While the absence of external goods may prevent someone from being truly happy, a person possessing virtue cannot be considered unhappy, as virtue allows one to endure setbacks with integrity.