Aristotle's Core Philosophy & Hellenistic Ethics

Aristotle's Metaphysics: Substance and Reality

Metaphysics: The study of reality and what exists. Aristotle referred to this as substance, proposing the theory of hylemorphism: the union of matter (the physical component) and form (specific qualities). All around us are substances, which constitute the unique and authentic reality. This reality, for Aristotle, is a substantial synthesis, bridging the gap between Plato's two-world theory.

Aristotle begins by acknowledging Plato's concept of universals, which arise from the perfections of things. However, according to Aristotle, these universals do not reside in a separate, higher world, but rather within the things themselves. In reality, only individual, concrete substances exist. Yet, each of these substances embodies a universal or general mode—its essence—which defines what it is and is shared with other individuals of the same species. For example, while only separate, specific men truly exist, all embody the same universal "man," which is their common essence.

Aristotle's Theory of Movement

Potency and Act

Aristotle's theory of potency and act addresses change. Between being and non-being, there is an opposition. Between these two extremes, a third term fits: potentiality. This is what is not yet, but can be—the ability to be. All beings in nature contain a mixture of potency and act; they possess a current state (their actuality) and many possibilities (their potencies) to be actualized (made real) during their lifetime. Movement, then, is precisely the actualization of potency.

Aristotle on Forms of Government

Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy

Aristotle categorized forms of government into three main types:

• Monarchy: Rule by one.
• Aristocracy: Rule by the best.
• Democracy: Rule by the many.

He considered the monarchy to be the best system, as it offers efficiency and responsibility, reflecting the individual as the primary substance and existing real being. The worst form is tyranny, which is a corrupted monarchy, because its corruption is more detrimental. However, Aristotle also proposed that the most perfect system would be one that harmonizes these three forms of just government.

Hellenistic Schools of Philosophy

Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Skepticism

These schools, primarily ethical in nature, emerged in Athens and offered individuals distinct paths to happiness.

Epicurean Philosophy

Epicurus, whose principal authority is Diogenes Laërtius, taught in "The Garden." His philosophy provided remedies for human anxieties:

Epicurus's Four Remedies (Tetrapharmakos)

1. Freedom from the fear of the gods, by demonstrating that they do not concern themselves with human affairs.
2. Freedom from the fear of death, by explaining that death is merely the cessation of sensation and thus nothing to be feared.
3. The belief that pleasures are simple, easily attainable, and essential for a good life.
4. Freedom from the fear of pain, as it is either brief or manageable.

Three Parts of Epicurean Philosophy

• Canonic: The rules to guide humanity to happiness, countering prejudice.
• Physics: The study of nature and human beings, influenced by Democritus's atomic theory (atoms and void explain changes in the world, with spontaneous movements).
• Ethics: The pursuit of pleasure as the fundamental purpose of life, equating pleasure with happiness.

Key Concepts: Pleasure, Ataraxia, Autarky

• Pleasure: The balanced satisfaction of natural necessities.
• Ataraxia: Freedom from pain and mental disturbance.
• Autarky: Self-sufficiency.

Epicurus advocated prioritizing friendships over politics, as political involvement often disturbs the spirit.

The Process of Knowledge Acquisition

From Sensation to Universal Concepts

The process of knowledge, often associated with empiricist thought, can be outlined as follows:

1. Mind as Tabula Rasa: The mind begins as a blank slate, devoid of innate ideas.
2. Object: An external object or reality is perceived.
3. Senses: Sensory organs gather perceptions.
4. Mental Images: Individual sensations are synthesized into mental images.
5. Reason (Abstraction): Through reason and abstraction, the mind extracts commonalities.
6. Universal Concept: A universal concept is formed from these abstractions.
7. Judgments: Logical relationships between concepts are established, leading to judgments (affirmative, negative, particular, universal).