Ancient World Literary Traditions and Masterpieces

Hindu Literature

Appeared 4,000 years ago and began to be written in the Sanskrit language. This literature is sometimes referred to as "Sanskrit."

Key Characteristics

Had origins in popular sentiment, through which councils sought to answer vital questions, expressing the prevailing mood. Spirituality was a fundamental aspect of its development.

Vedic Period

Literature prior to the 4th century BCE. Its most representative works include The Vedas and the Brahmanas, embodying wisdom and religious principles.

Epic Period

Known for two major epics:

• Mahabharata: A vast epic poem.
• Ramayana: A mythological poem of 24,000 verses divided into seven songs. It describes the journey of Rama to Lanka (Ceylon) against the giant Ravana, who had stolen his wife Sita. The narrative depicts the eternal battle between the powers of light and the forces of darkness.

Classical Sanskrit Period

Notable for lyric poetry, fable, and drama.

Lyric Poetry

Key works include Kalidasa's (4th century CE) Ritusamhara and Meghaduta.

Fable

The Panchatantra, authored by Narayana (12th century CE).

Drama

Each theatrical piece features a prologue, is divided into acts, and often includes a clown in the dialogues.

Hebrew Literature

The Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament (46 books), which tells the story of the Hebrews, and the New Testament (27 books), which chronicles the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus, his teachings, and the life of the early Christians.

Key Characteristics

Simplicity in language, a constant variety of engaging topics, including historical, poetic, and religious fervor, marked by religious monotheism. Intense Messianic feeling.

Notable Texts

Pentateuch (Torah)

Also known as the "Torah" (law book), it comprises the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

Mesha Stele

A 34-line inscription ordered by the Moabite King Mesha, recording his victory in a revolt against Omri, king of Israel.

The Talmud

Contains rabbinical discussions on Jewish law, ethics, customs, legends, and stories.

Classical Greek and Roman Literature

Greek Literary Periods

Attic or Athenian Period (5th-3rd Centuries BCE)

The peak of Greek culture under the rule of Pericles, when Athens reached its cultural zenith. Key genres and authors include:

• Tragedy: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides
• Comedy: Aristophanes
• History: Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon
• Oratory: Demosthenes

Hellenistic or Alexandrian Period (3rd Century BCE - 1st Century CE)

Notable for comedy of manners (Menander) and lyric poetry (Theocritus and Callimachus of Cyrene).

Greco-Roman Period (2nd-4th Centuries CE)

Diffusion of Greek culture to Western peoples, facilitated by the Romans. Key figures include:

• History: Polybius and Plutarch
• Philosophy: Epictetus, Lucian, and Plotinus

Notable Authors and Works

Homer

Author of the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey.

Sophocles

A tragedian who created characters with complex inner lives, exploring deep feelings and the destiny of man. His works include Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone, Electra, and Ajax.

Virgil (Latin)

Author of Eclogues, Georgics, and the epic Aeneid.

Horace

Known for his Satires and Epodes. Famous phrases include "Beatus ille" (praise for rural life over city life) and "Carpe Diem" (seize the day).

Apuleius

Author of The Metamorphoses, also known as The Golden Ass.

Petronius

Author of The Satyricon, a picaresque novel.

Key Literary Concepts

Anagnorisis

A moment in a play or other work when a character moves from ignorance to knowledge, often leading to a crucial discovery.

Chinese Literature

Core Principles

Focused on moral and political doctrine, extending to transcendentalism and beyond. Its highest teachings expressed loving-kindness and reverence for ancestors. The teachings of Confucius emphasized practices related to goodness, wisdom, and social relations.