Ancient Roman Society: Governance, Religion, and Law

Roman Civilization: Governance, Religion, and Law

Roman Municipal Administration

The municipal curia consisted of hundreds of members and served as a legislature for all matters of governance. The curia was renewed every five years but had to operate under specific conditions.

The municipal executive power resided in two duumvirs. They presided over the curia and held both civil and criminal jurisdiction. The quaestors administered municipal finance, while the aediles (municipal officials) were in charge of supervising municipal affairs. The duumvirs were also responsible for the five-year census of citizens and their property.

Roman Religious Practices

Religious Officials

The flamines (18) were consecrated to the worship of a particular god. Those dealing with Mars and Jupiter Quirinus were prominent. Below them were the pontifices, who oversaw archaic cults (5) and were responsible for monitoring religious practices. The Exalted Pontifex Maximus was considered the supreme religious authority in Rome. The Vestals of Vesta were chosen by the Pontifex Maximus from noble families, cared for, and kept the sacred fire of Vesta, which was considered a treasure.

Private Worship

In the courtyard, altars stood where the Lares were venerated. These protectors of the home and household gods were often represented as young men. The Penates were the protectors of the pantry and the house, and food offerings were given to them. The Manes were the spirits of the dead, invoked to attract their benevolence.

Types of Sacrifices

• Libations
• Sacrificial Animals (e.g., Hecatomb)
• Suovetaurilia (sacrifice of a pig, sheep, and bull)
• Porca Praesentanea (sacrifice of a pregnant sow)
• Human sacrifice (rare and largely abolished in later periods)

Roman Mythology: Deities

Bellona

The sister and wife of Mars, represented as the goddess of war (Dea Armas).

Bona Dea

A fertility goddess and wife of Faunus, a model of chastity.

Faunus

The god of fields and forests, who makes them fertile.

Janus

One of the oldest gods, credited with taking care of grass and considered the god of beginnings and transitions.

Mater Matuta

Goddess of dawn and sailors.

Quirinus

God of delivery and the protection of farmers and shepherds.

Tellus

Goddess of fertile land.

Venus

Goddess of love and beauty.

Juno

Goddess of marriage, queen of the gods.

Jupiter

King of the gods, associated with thunder and lightning.

Neptune

God of the sea and water.

Ceres

Goddess of agriculture and the fruit of the earth.

Vesta

Goddess of the hearth fire.

Pluto

God of the underworld.

Mars

God of war and courage.

Vulcan

God of fire and the forges.

Minerva

Goddess of wisdom.

Mercury

Messenger and guide of the gods.

Diana

Goddess of hunting and forestry.

Apollo

God of poetry, beauty, and art.

Bacchus

God of vines, wine, and theater.

Sources of Roman Law

• Laws (Leges): Enacted by a magistrate before the assembly.
• Plebiscite (Plebiscita): Laws passed by the plebeian assembly (Concilium Plebis), initially binding only on the plebs, but later on all citizens.
• Senate Resolutions (Senatus Consulta): Decrees of the Senate that gained the force of legislation.
• Edicts of Magistrates (Edicta): Regulations and communications issued by magistrates, limited only by the veto of other judges.
• Responses of Juriconsults (Responsa Prudentium): Opinions and interpretations of legal experts, which became highly influential due to their profound knowledge of the law.
• Imperial Constitutions (Constitutiones Principum): Rules and decrees issued by the emperors, becoming the sole source of law during the Imperial era.