Ancient Roman Governance: Magistrates, Senate, and Censors

Ancient Roman Governance: Key Institutions and Roles

The Roman Magistracies: The Cursus Honorum

The Roman magistrates were the leading exponents of executive power. The cursus honorum (course of honors), the progression of political offices, was perfectly regulated. It typically consisted of four main steps:

• Quaestor: The first step in the traditional Roman political career.
• Aedile: Responsible for public works and games.
• Praetor: Administered justice.
• Consul: The highest executive office.

The Roman Senate

During the Republic, the Senate was the most important organ of the Roman state. While its direct political power diminished during the Empire, it retained significant influence and prestige in civic life. Senators continued to enjoy high social standing, wore the toga praetexta in public ceremonies, and had preferred, reserved seats in public entertainments.

Composition of the Senate

• Initially, the Senate comprised 600 members.
• Julius Caesar expanded its number to 900.
• Later, the number was reduced back to 600.
• Censors were responsible for compiling and maintaining the list of senators.

Powers of the Senate

The Senate served primarily as a consultative body, but its influence was vast:

• Advised on matters of national religion and policy.
• Oversaw and controlled public finances.
• Directed foreign policy and received embassies.
• Designated and controlled military operations.
• Could enact emergency measures to guarantee national security.

Senate Sessions

Sessions were private, and senators were permitted to speak without interruption.

Key Roman Magistrates and Their Responsibilities

• Quaestor: Responsible for the finances of Rome and its provinces; they made payments to the army.
• Aedile: There were four aediles (two plebeian and two curule), responsible for municipal administration, public works, and the organization of public games.
• Praetor: The Praetor Urbanus handled cases involving Roman citizens, while the Praetor Peregrinus dealt with cases involving foreigners. Both were in charge of the administration of justice.
• Consul: Two men simultaneously held this office. They gave their names to the year, were responsible for decisions regarding armies, and could summon the Senate. They held supreme executive power.
• Censor: There were two censors, responsible for classifying citizens in different censuses, managing public morals, and overseeing public works contracts.
• Tribune of the Plebs: Initially two, later ten, they defended the interests of the plebeians against the patricians. They were the only ones who could call elections or assemblies of the plebs.

The Censors: Guardians of Public Morals and Infrastructure

The office of censor was highly sought after by Romans, and there were always two censors. Censors managed public money and were responsible for the care of roads and public buildings.

A notable censor was Appius Claudius Caecus. As censor, he initiated the construction of the Aqua Appia, Rome's first aqueduct, and the Via Appia, a major road. The distribution of water from public sources was a significant issue. Many citizens were against laws that allowed underground pipes to divert water from public sources to private homes.

Later, Cato the Censor (Cato the Elder) took office and managed very severe water laws. He famously cracked down on illegal private water connections, ensuring that citizens were not allowed to pipe water from public sources for private use without proper authorization, thereby prioritizing public access to water.