Ancient Philosophical Ideals for a Meaningful Life

The Socratic Ideal of Self-Examination

Socrates was not a professional philosopher but a simple citizen guided by an unshakeable desire for truth, questioning the values and practices of his time. Socrates gave no definitive answers, nor did he appear to claim he had them. He only knew that the conventional answers of his fellow citizens often lacked true understanding. However, his ideal of life was not exhausted in the negativity of this apparent skepticism. Above all, he wanted individuals to care for their souls and find the truth, believing that truth should illuminate our lives. Socrates was convinced that truth exists, and although hard to find, it is to be found within ourselves. He argued the difficulty lies in our souls being full of prejudices, dominated by desires and passions. If we could overcome vanity and reduce our dependence on others' opinions, we could hear the voice of conscience more clearly. Socrates proposed a method for finding the truth: the dialogue. Understood as a reasoned conversation, it is the best way to access the truth.

Moral Intellectualism: Knowledge as Virtue

According to Socrates, knowledge and virtue are identified. One who truly knows what is right will act righteously. This implies that no one does wrong knowingly; wrongdoing stems from ignorance of the good.

Aristotle's Pursuit of Eudaimonia

Aristotle believed the greatest good for human beings is eudaimonia, often translated as happiness or flourishing. Eudaimonists believe happiness is the ultimate goal of human life, and moral virtue is an essential component of it. Aristotle thought that humans achieve happiness only when we perform the function or activity which is our own and distinguishes us as humans: rational activity. However, external goods like family, friends, and health are also necessary. A key feature of Aristotelian ethics is its detailed analysis of moral virtues. Aristotle defined moral virtues as a mean between two extremes of vice (excess and deficiency). For Aristotle, the highest form of happiness is found in intellectual contemplation (theoria), though he acknowledged that true happiness also requires moral virtue and sufficient external goods.

The Epicurean Path to Pleasure and Tranquility

Epicurus of Samos taught that pleasure is the highest good and the primary goal of life. Epicurus and his followers are known as hedonists, though his concept of pleasure differs from simple sensual indulgence. He believed that by seeking modest pleasures, minimizing pain, and achieving ataraxia (tranquility or freedom from disturbance), we could attain happiness. Epicurus recommended applying rationality or prudence (phronesis) when choosing pleasures, considering their long-term consequences. Priority should be given to satisfying natural and necessary desires (like food and shelter), followed by natural but unnecessary desires, while avoiding vain and empty desires.

The Stoic Ideal: Virtue and Living Accordantly

Also, the Stoics taught that virtue is the only true good and is sufficient for happiness, leading to peace of mind (apatheia). Virtue consists in living in accordance with nature, which means living according to reason. Understanding, accepting, and consciously living in harmony with the rational order of the cosmos makes us virtuous. The most famous Stoic moralists were Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius.

The Skeptical Approach: Suspending Judgment

Skepticism taught that humans cannot attain certain knowledge about the true nature of things. We can only know how things appear to us (phenomena), not how they are in themselves (noumena). Skepticism advocated for epoché (suspension of judgment) regarding non-evident matters. This suspension of judgment leads to ataraxia (tranquility), which they considered happiness. But how should one live without certainty? Skeptics suggested living pragmatically, following local customs, laws, and probable appearances. Prominent figures associated with Skepticism include Pyrrho and Cicero (in his Academic Skeptic phase).

The Early Christian Ethic of Love and Community

Jesus of Nazareth, a Jew who lived in poverty, formed a community of apostles and disciples. He preached primarily to ordinary people and those marginalized by society. Following Jesus's death, the belief in his resurrection arose among his followers, who considered him the Messiah. From this belief, the first Christian communities began to form. Their hope for the Messiah's return was accompanied by a radical ethic emphasizing mutual help, love of neighbor (agape), voluntary poverty, and communal living.