Ancient & Medieval Philosophy: Soul, God, and Christian Thought

Plato & Aristotle: Conception of the Soul

Aristotle rejected Plato's dualistic theory, which posited that humans are composed of a body and soul with a radical division between these two components. For Aristotle, the soul is the principle of life, the 'act' of a living body, distinguishing it from inanimate objects.

Consequently, he argued that not only humans possess souls, but also that different kinds of souls exist, corresponding to different forms of life. Hence, Aristotle distinguished three types of souls: vegetative, animal (or sensitive), and rational. In contrast, Plato viewed the soul as a uniquely human quality, not establishing different kinds of souls but rather dividing the human soul into three parts: the rational, the spirited (or irascible), and the appetitive (or concupiscent).

Unlike Plato, Aristotle did not consider the body to be a prison of the soul. Instead, he saw both as inseparable principles, mutually dependent to form the complete substance of all living things. Therefore, he admitted neither the pre-existence of the soul, its transmigration, nor its immortality.

Innovations of Christianity

The 5th century marked the beginning of the Medieval period and, with it, the development of a new religious movement born from Judaism: Christianity. Christianity emerged as a doctrine revealed by God, aiming for human salvation. Its claims are based on the divine word, accepted through faith. In contrast to the Greek philosophical tradition, Christianity introduced several philosophical developments:

• Monotheism: In stark contrast to Greek and Roman polytheism, Christianity asserted the existence of a single God.
• Creationism: God created the world ex nihilo (out of nothing).
• Almighty God: As the creator of the universe, God is not subject to any superior entity. Therefore, He is omnipotent, omnipresent, and governs the universe according to His own laws.
• The Concept of Truth: Truth is revealed by God; faith serves as the divine light enabling its comprehension.
• Linear Vision of the World: Human history is a temporal and linear concept, beginning with God's creation and culminating with Christ's return, the Final Judgment, the resurrection of the dead, and the triumph of Good over Evil.
• Divine Providence: God does not abandon the world after creation but actively sustains it. He cares for human beings, even to the extent of taking on human nature and being present in history.
• Redefinition of Wisdom and Happiness: For Christians, true happiness stems not from knowledge, but from love.
• New Virtues: The introduction of theological virtues: faith, hope, and charity.