Ancient Iberia: Celts, Iberians, and Roman Conquest

Ancient Iberia

Celts

Celtic peoples, an Indo-European group, migrated to the Iberian Peninsula between the 10th and 5th centuries BC. Organized into clans and tribes, their hierarchical society placed warriors at the top. These cattle farmers resided in fortified hilltop villages known as castros, which were largely self-sufficient due to limited trade. Their dwellings were typically rounded, and they practiced polytheism and cremation in designated necropolis.

Celtiberians

Representing a more developed Celtic group due to Iberian influence, the Celtiberians inhabited larger settlements called oppida and possessed a written language.

Iberians

Indigenous to the Iberian Peninsula, Iberians were influenced by colonizers such as the Phoenicians and Greeks. These farmers and artisans lived in fortified towns and were divided into various tribes with a hierarchical structure, featuring a warrior aristocracy. They adopted writing and currency from the colonizers. Their religious practices included animism, worship of nature spirits, and reverence for goddesses from the eastern Mediterranean. Cremation was customary, with urns placed in necropolis during ceremonies. Votive offerings were frequently made to nature spirits, left in caves or necropolis.

Phoenicians

Originating from the Asian Mediterranean coast, Phoenician colonizers settled in the southern Iberian Peninsula around the 12th century BC. Primarily traders, they established trade posts to exchange goods with the indigenous populations, including the Tartessians and Iberians. Their presence ended around the 5th century BC.

Greeks

Arriving in the 7th century BC, the Greeks founded colonies, such as Emporion on the northern Mediterranean coast, populated by Greek citizens.

Carthaginians

Initially a Phoenician colony, Carthage gained independence after the decline of Phoenician power. Unlike the Phoenicians, who focused solely on trade, the Carthaginians established colonies in the southeastern Iberian Peninsula, including Carthago Nova.

The Roman Conquest and Romanization

Following defeat in the First Punic War, the Carthaginians, led by Hamilcar Barca, increased their presence in the Iberian Peninsula to amass resources and soldiers for a second war against Rome.

Hannibal Barca spearheaded the Carthaginian attack on Rome during the Second Punic War. The Romans responded by deploying an army to the Iberian Peninsula to dismantle Carthaginian bases and occupy the Mediterranean coast. While focused on other conquests, the Romans gradually expanded their control in Iberia over two centuries to protect occupied territories from Iberian and Celtic attacks. This conquered land was named Hispania.

The Romans divided Hispania into provinces, each governed by a governor and magistrates who oversaw the Roman army and administration. The provinces underwent several reorganizations, increasing from two to six over time.

Provinces were structured around cities connected by Roman roads. Cities symbolized Roman power and served as centers for disseminating Roman culture. The conquered population gradually adopted Roman language, laws, and lifestyle, a process known as Romanization.

The Economy of Hispania

The Roman Empire was interconnected by extensive trade routes, with each province specializing in specific products. In Hispania, Romans established large farms called villae rusticae, owned by patricians or wealthy equestrians, who controlled vast estates (latifundia) cultivated by slaves. They introduced new irrigation systems, plows, flour mills, and oil presses. Mining of gold, silver, copper, iron, and mercury was also significant. Fish resources were important for salting and producing garum, a fermented fish sauce.