Ancient Greek Philosophy: From Pre-Socratics to Plato

1. Historical and Cultural Context

Ancient Greek philosophy flourished from the 7th century BC to the 1st century AD, encompassing three distinct periods:

A. Hellenic Period

Monarchies, the dominant form of government in the Greek polis until 650 BC, were replaced by oligarchies and subsequently by tyrannies that spread throughout the Mediterranean colonies. In the 5th century BC, Athens emerged as a prominent city, adopting a democratic constitution under Pericles. This era marked a golden age for Athens. Following victory over the Persians in the Median Wars, Athens led the Delian League, and its democratic system was emulated by other cities. However, Athens' prosperity sparked jealousy in Sparta, leading to the Peloponnesian War. Sparta's victory in 404 BC resulted in the oppressive rule of the Thirty Tyrants. This five-year period of terror and corruption ended with the restoration of democracy in 399 BC.

B. Hellenistic Period

From 336 BC, Alexander the Great's reign ushered in an empire extending to India, the Persian Empire, and Egypt. Greece was unified, ending the political independence of the Greek polis.

C. Roman Period

The final stage of the Greek world coincided with the rise of the Roman period. Cleopatra, the last Hellenistic queen, allied with Mark Antony, who, along with Lepidus and Octavius, formed the Second Triumvirate that ruled Rome. This period concluded in 31 AD with Octavian's appointment as the first Roman emperor.

The Greeks shared a distinct cultural identity and values, transmitted through myths. Their religion, characterized by a lack of sacred texts and a priestly class, centered on gods who embodied knowledge and guided human actions. These myths were passed down orally until Homer and Hesiod recorded them in writing.

2. Philosophical Context

Greek philosophy spanned over 400 years (mid-6th century BC to the second half of the 2nd century BC) and can be categorized as follows:

A. Pre-Socratics

These philosophers focused on nature, seeking to understand its origins. Active during the 6th century BC, they did not establish formal schools but sought an original substance underlying nature's transformations. Notable figures who influenced Plato include Parmenides (concept of Being), Pythagoras (theory of the soul), Empedocles (elements and the void), and Anaxagoras (concept of nous).

B. Sophists

These philosophers focused on human beings and their social interactions. They emerged during a period of social and political transformation following the victory over the Persian Empire, the expansion of democracy, and increased citizen engagement in politics.

C. Plato and Aristotle

These philosophers addressed philosophical problems comprehensively and profoundly, holding prominent positions in the history of philosophy.

D. Hellenistic Philosophers

These philosophers focused on individual well-being and the pursuit of happiness, leading to the rise of moral philosophy schools during the Hellenistic period, notably Epicureanism (founded by Epicurus) and Stoicism (founded by Zeno of Citium).

Understanding Plato's texts requires knowledge of his life and work:

• Born in Athens in 427 BC to an aristocratic family involved in politics.
• Disillusioned with the oligarchs, he became a disciple of Socrates, who was later sentenced to death.
• Traveled to Italy, encountering Pythagoreanism, and was invited to Sicily by Dion, brother of Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse. His ideas clashed with the tyrant, leading to his enslavement.
• Upon returning to Athens, he founded the Academy.
• Invited back to Sicily by Dion after Dionysius I's death, but conflict with Dionysius II forced his return to Athens.
• Dedicated his final years to writing.

Plato's Works

Early Dialogues (Socratic Period)

• Written between Socrates' death and Plato's first trip to Sicily, these dialogues primarily present Socrates' thought.
• Apology: Socrates' defense speech.
• Crito: Socrates in prison.
• Protagoras: The nature of virtue.
• Gorgias: Rhetoric versus true wisdom.

Middle Dialogues (Doctrinal Development)

• Written during his time at the Academy until his second trip to Sicily, these dialogues develop the Theory of Ideas.
• Symposium: Love and beauty.
• Phaedo: Socrates before his death.
• Republic: Theory of Ideas.
• Phaedrus: Soul, love, and beauty.

Late Dialogues (Critical Period)

• Reflect Plato's experiences and his attempts to implement his political philosophy.