Ancient Greek Philosophy of Happiness and Virtue

Eudaemonism: The Pursuit of the Good Life

Eudaemonism, a central concept in ancient Greek philosophy, posits that human well-being and flourishing (eudaimonia) are the highest good and the aim of moral thought and conduct. This pursuit of the good life was explored by prominent philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, each offering unique perspectives on how individuals can achieve true happiness and virtue.

Socrates on Objective Knowledge of Good

Socrates believed that objective knowledge of good is possible and universally applicable. He argued that the idea of "good" is inherent within humanity; one merely needs to bring these innate ideas to light. According to Socrates:

• One cannot live well without knowing what is good, as it is impossible to properly evaluate one's actions otherwise.
• To discover what is best, one must engage in dialogue with someone knowledgeable, typically a philosopher.
• Those who act well do so because they possess knowledge of what is good.
• Only someone who understands goodness can perform good deeds, and performing good deeds ultimately leads to happiness.
• Conversely, those who commit evil do so out of ignorance, not malice, as they simply do not know what is truly good.

Socrates' solution was education: to enlighten individuals and help them comprehend the nature of good. This represents an optimistic stance, suggesting that societal happiness is achievable through individual enlightenment, though his focus was more on the individual's moral development.

Plato's Recollection of Virtue

Plato, building upon Socratic thought, posited that humans already possess all knowledge, but have forgotten it. He believed that our souls were once in contact with virtue in the realm of Forms but became separated and forgot this inherent wisdom. Therefore, true learning is a process of recollection, where individuals examine themselves to rediscover what they already know.

For Plato, the Idea of the Good serves as the ultimate model for all actions, with some actions aligning better than others. To truly know what is good, one must dedicate their life to contemplation and study, a path that leads to eudaimonia, which he described as a state of soul wisdom.

Plato identified several kinds of virtues, essential for a harmonious soul:

• Temperance: Related to the concupiscible (appetitive) part of the soul, managing desires.
• Fortitude (Courage): Related to the irascible (spirited) part, managing emotions and willpower.
• Prudence (Wisdom/Reason): Related to the intelligible (rational) part, guiding judgment and understanding.

The harmonious development of these virtues leads to eudaimonia. A truly good deed, according to Plato, must embody all three virtues, making its achievement a challenging but noble pursuit. He emphasized that individuals must strive for their own happiness and moral excellence.

Aristotle's Naturalist and Realist View of Happiness

Aristotle presented a naturalist and realist perspective on the good. He argued that "the good" is not a singular, universal concept but varies for each being according to its nature. For Aristotle, eudaimonia (happiness or human flourishing) is the supreme end that all humans aspire to—a good in itself that does not depend on anything else for its value. External goods, such as wealth or status, are merely partial means to achieve this ultimate end.

The pursuit of eudaimonia is inherent in human nature. Aristotle identified different paths to happiness:

• Some find happiness in pleasure.
• Others, particularly scholars, find their happiness in knowledge and intellectual activity.

Those whose happiness lies in learning pursue knowledge for its own sake, studying nature and behavior not as a means to an end, but as an end in itself. However, Aristotle acknowledged that achieving eudaimonia also requires a variety of external factors, such as a supportive family, education, and a stable economic status. This makes eudaimonia a difficult but conquerable achievement.

Aristotle stressed that one cannot be happy without cultivating a habit of virtuous action. He believed that a life rich in rationality and self-contemplation is the most fulfilling. He categorized virtues into two main types:

• Dianoetic (Intellectual) Virtues: These are natural virtues developed through conceptual learning, such as wisdom, intelligence, and prudence.
• Ethical (Moral) Virtues: These are developed through practice and habit, such as fortitude and temperance.

For Aristotle, virtue is the mean between two excesses—it is the fair, balanced, prudent, and rational measure. Thus, the good life, a life of true happiness, must be rational and prudent, guided by these virtues.