Ancient Civilizations: Society, Governance, and Culture

The Emergence of Early Civilizations

As mankind began to develop more complex ways of life, and as cities increased in size and complexity, a new type of society emerged. These societies are known today as civilizations.

Defining Civilization

A civilization is a nation or people that share a common culture, common laws, a common economy, and typically a common faith or religion.

Developmental Milestones

For thousands of years, mankind survived by finding food and shelter for themselves and their families. Eventually, specialization emerged: one person could specialize in making pottery, while another could specialize in weaving cloth. The quality of their pottery, cloth, or other products became increasingly better.

This development led to several key societal changes:

• People developed irrigation techniques.
• Production and population increased.
• Cities appeared, necessitating strong political power.
• Society became highly hierarchical.

Mesopotamian Society and Governance

The Mesopotamian civilization developed between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates.

From City-States to Empires (c. 2000 B.C.)

Initially, many cities banded together, forming small kingdoms. Their rulers maintained complete autonomy, ruling their city-states without interference from others.

Around 2,000 B.C., kings began unifying nearby territories and cities to extend their possessions and gain greater power. Sometimes, they made war to enlarge their territories. This way, kings became very powerful and succeeded in forming large empires. As territories expanded, a state structure was needed to assure their dominance and power.

Mesopotamian Social Hierarchy

The social structure was rigid:

1. The Aristocracy: The ruling class and the king's family.
2. Wealthy Merchants and Clerks: Including scribes, who were highly important.
3. Peasants: They rented lands belonging to the king or the temple, to which they paid part of the harvest they obtained.
4. Debt Slaves: They could hold property in their own names and could eventually buy their freedom.

Women had more rights than women in many other contemporary civilizations, and they could even join the priesthood.

Religious Beliefs in Mesopotamia

Mesopotamians believed that their gods were both immortal and all-powerful. Humans were considered nothing but their servants. They worked hard to earn the gods’ protection in this life, but they expected little help from the gods after death.

Ancient Egyptian Governance and Regalia

The Role of the Pharaoh

The Egyptians were governed by the Pharaoh (pronounced FAIR-oh), who was helped by government officials, governors, and military personnel. These officials helped extend the Pharaoh's power throughout the territories under his command and ensure that the laws were obeyed.

Key Egyptian Crowns and Headdresses

The Pharaoh wore various crowns symbolizing his authority and dominion:

• The Double Crown: A combination of the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Crown of Upper Egypt, symbolizing unified rule.
• The Blue Crown (Khepresh): A blue cloth or leather headdress decorated with bronze or gold discs. It was worn in battles, as well as on ceremonial occasions.
• The Atef Crown: A white headdress decorated with ostrich feathers.
• The Nemes Headdress: A blue and gold striped head cloth, often depicted on funerary masks.