Ancient Beliefs: Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Greek, and Roman Views of Death

Ba: The Shape-Shifting Soul

The ba is characterized by its ability to leave the body and take on many appearances. It is often represented as a bird with a human head. Coffin Texts 2.3.Los

The Pharaoh's Transformation

The Pharaoh, though still powerful, appears more human. This is how the Coffin Texts collection was formed. The sarcophagus itself represented the universe. The ascension took place in the form of the ba bird. The deceased could only reach heaven by using a fishing net placed to hunt souls between heaven and earth. There are other dangers in the form of animals and evil demons, such as Gegba (black bird) or Rerek (murderer of ka). Their fate will be threatened by Seth, who will also try to cause their second and final death. The Book of the Dead

To save the effort of working, miniature figurines were buried with the living through spell book 6 of the dead. This book provides two interesting developments:

1) The Trial of the Dead

The judge was originally Re but ended up being Osiris. Anubis enters the courthouse in the courtroom. The heart is put into a pan balance and the other a feather representing Maat. If the trial is in favor of Horus, he presents the deceased before Osiris, who, along with a Senate, has the final decision. The deceased must say the name of each judge.

2) Negative Confession

Each judge is responsible for punishing a sin that the deceased should deny having committed.

Differences and Similarities in Theology: Mesopotamia and Egypt

1. Although both believe something remains after death, the ba and ka have greater consistency and vitality in Egyptian beliefs.
2. Death is feared in Mesopotamia, while in Egypt it is a transit to a life in communion with the gods.
3. In Mesopotamia, a shadowy underworld is expected, while in Egypt, a replica of earthly life (save for the damned) and, in some cases (especially for the Pharaoh), deification is expected.
4. In Mesopotamia, death makes all equal. In Egypt, in the Old Kingdom, deification was the exclusive prerogative of the pharaoh, but not so as early as the Middle Kingdom.
5. In Mesopotamia, death arises as a failure in the quest for immortality because mortal destiny is even capriciously sentenced by the gods. In Egypt, identification with Re and Osiris is expected, and only in exceptional periods of crisis is that hope lost (in a desperate dialogue with his soul, Song of the harp).
6. In Mesopotamia, a trial of the dead is not conceived as in Egypt.
7. In both cultures, a good relationship between the living and the dead is desirable.

Death in Greece and Rome

Death and the Cult of Heroes in Homer and Hesiod (8th Century BC)

The Soul

The body, Thymos (located in the lungs, which means mind or consciousness: if you lose consciousness, you bleed), and psyche exist beyond the body. It is sometimes called image or eidolon, which is the term used in the Homeric poems to designate.