Al-Andalus: History, Society, and Culture in Medieval Spain

Al-Andalus: Muslim Military Occupation of the Iberian Peninsula

Internal crises and the expansionist movement of the Visigoths and Islam (634) led to rivalries for throne succession. When Agila (Visigoth king) died, the Duke of Betica led a revolt and occupied the throne, resulting in a civil war. The Visigoths then asked for help from Muslims in North Africa. Because of internal disputes, Governor Musa could consider conquering the Peninsula and Ceuta. Musa (711) started an expedition with 7,000 men to the peninsula, followed by another 5,000. The showdown was at Guadalete, where the Visigoths lost Roderic. They conquered the peninsula shortly and easily, showing tolerance to Christians and Jews who defended their lost land rights. Those who voluntarily submitted were respected in return for tax payments.

There were two main ethnic groups:

• Arabs (from the Arabian Peninsula) who held the best lands.
• Berbers (from North Africa) who were primarily involved in grazing.

Al-Andalus Evolution: Eight and a Half Centuries

In the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries, Al-Andalus experienced its glory days. It had three major political milestones:

• Dependent Emirate (714)

  The peninsula was a province of Damascus. Political instability and years of fighting against Muslims prevented further northward expansion after the Battle of Poitiers.

• Caliphate of Cordoba (920)

  Abd al-Rahman III proclaimed himself caliph, vindicating the legitimacy of his dynasty due to the crises of the Baghdad Caliphate. He showed strength against the advance of the Fatimids. This period marked the political climax and a moment of maximum cultural and artistic splendor. After Almanzor's death, the caliphate was divided.

Taifa Kingdoms Crisis (11th-13th Centuries)

Due to the weakening of the Caliphate, territories began to separate in the 11th century. In 1033, a rebellion in Cordoba eliminated the last caliph (Hisham III), and Al-Andalus was divided into Taifa kingdoms. Characteristics of this period included:

• Disputes between the Taifa kingdoms themselves, leading to a reduction in the number of smaller kingdoms, which united with larger ones.
• Due to Christian military superiority, the Taifa kingdoms survived by paying "parias" (tributes).
• They retained territories rich in culture.

At the end of the century, as Christians expanded, the Taifa kingdoms agreed to request external help.

Homo sapiens (40,000 years ago - present): 1450cc, originated in Africa, used stone and bone tools, developed art.

Economy and Society of Al-Andalus

The economic base of Al-Andalus was agriculture, with advanced irrigation techniques and waterwheels. They introduced new crops like rice and citrus. Land ownership was based on estates, and landowners lived in cities, collecting rents. Cities like Cordoba, Seville, and Granada played important economic roles. The city was divided into a center (medina), a commercial area (alcaceria), residential neighborhoods, suburbs, and slums. The souk was the permanent market. Handicrafts included textiles (silk, wool, cotton), ceramics, glass, and paper. Al-Andalus had trade relations with Christians, a rich market, and exported goods due to its control of oil and gold, leading to significant monetary circulation.

Social Structure

The social structure was divided into:

• Muslims
  • Arabs
  • Berbers (converted to Islam)
  • Muladi (Christians converted to Islam to avoid taxes)
• Non-Muslim minorities
  • Jews (tolerated by politics)
  • Mozarabs (Christians living in Muslim territory, often mistreated)
• Slaves

  They formed the base of the social structure and were of European origin (Slavs) or from Sudan.

Al-Andalus: Thought and Literary Creation

The Malekite doctrine, a rigid interpretation of the Quran, was imposed in Islam. During the Caliphate era (9th century), Al-Andalus experienced a cultural, political, and economic splendor. A climate of intellectual freedom turned Cordoba into a cultural center with significant developments in mathematics. A contribution to the Christian world was the adoption of the Arabic numbering system. The fall of the Caliphate encouraged the arts.

The Almoravids and Almohads, however, brought religious intolerance, limiting intellectual freedom. In the 13th century, three prominent figures emerged in medicine, philosophy, and thought: Abentofail, Averroes (Muslim), and Maimonides (Jew). The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada also experienced significant cultural activity.

Hominization of the Iberian Peninsula

The genus Homo is characterized by more complex brains.

• H. habilis (2.5 - 1.5 million years ago)

  700cc brain capacity, 1.5m tall, built simple stone tools, possibly capable of speech.

• H. erectus (1.8 - 0.3 million years ago)

  800cc brain capacity, 1.6m tall, manipulated fire, spread from Africa to Asia and Europe (known as Homo ergaster in Africa). No fossils found in the Iberian Peninsula.

• H. antecessor (0.8 million years ago)

  Remains found in Atapuerca are the oldest in Europe.

• H. neanderthalensis (0.3 - 0.03 million years ago)

  1500cc brain capacity, robust build, used advanced stone tools, buried their dead.