Age of Discovery: Portugal, Castile, and the Americas

Early European Expeditions: Portugal & Castile

• The monarchs of the Kingdoms of Portugal and Castile began to finance exploratory voyages.
• The Kingdom of Portugal sought to reach India via an easterly route, sailing around the coast of Africa to the Indian Ocean.
• These efforts continued until Bartolomeu Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487. Later, an expedition led by Vasco da Gama followed this route, reaching Calcutta, India, in 1498.
• The Kingdom of Castile attempted to reach India via a western route, crossing the Atlantic Ocean. An expedition led by Christopher Columbus discovered a new continent, America, on October 12, 1492.

Christopher Columbus and the Discovery of America

• Christopher Columbus was a sailor, likely from Genoa, who was obsessed with reaching India by crossing the Atlantic Ocean.
• His critics rightly argued that he miscalculated the Earth's dimensions, and that India was further away than he had estimated. However, when he presented his proposal to Queen Isabella I of Castile, 'the Catholic,' she was impressed by his enthusiasm. Isabella agreed to finance the voyage, going against her advisors.
• The monarchs signed the Capitulations of Santa Fe, an agreement stipulating that 10% of the riches obtained would go to Christopher Columbus, with the remainder going to the Crown. The agreement also stated that Columbus would become the viceroy of the territories he discovered.
• Christopher Columbus set sail from the Port of Palos (Huelva) in 1492, heading to the Canary Islands. Three hundred men and three ships comprised the expedition (two naos and one caravel). From the Canary Islands, they sailed across the Atlantic Ocean until they finally sighted land on October 12, 1492.
• They had arrived at Guanahani Island in the Bahamas, which he named San Salvador. They came into contact with the inhabitants of nearby islands and named the largest island La Española (Hispaniola). Columbus made three more voyages, during which he explored the Antilles and the nearby mainland coast.

The Treaty of Tordesillas: Dividing the World

• Castile and Portugal reached an agreement. They divided the newly discovered world into two zones for exploration and conquest, along a meridian located 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. The western zone belonged to Castile, and the eastern one to Portugal.

Circumnavigation and American Explorations

• The Spanish continued to search for a sea route through the recently discovered territories to reach Asia. In 1513, the explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the Pacific Ocean.
• In 1519, an expedition with a fleet of five ships and a crew of 280 men left Sanlúcar de Barrameda, commanded by Ferdinand Magellan. He sailed along the coast of South America until he discovered the strait that now bears his name (Strait of Magellan). From there, he crossed the Pacific and landed in the Philippines, where he died. Juan Sebastián Elcano, the new commander, completed the voyage and returned to Seville in 1522 with just one ship and 18 men. They were the first to circumnavigate the globe.
• During the 16^th century, other explorers traveled through the interior of the Americas. Francisco de Orellana explored South America, and Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca explored North America.

Stages of the Spanish Conquest of the Americas

• Initially, Spanish conquistadors occupied the Antilles. Subsequently, they defeated the continent's two most advanced civilizations: the Aztec and Inca Empires.
• From these territories, they expanded their dominions in all directions.
• 1492 – 1519: The Castilians occupied the Antilles and established enclaves on the mainland. Simultaneously, the Portuguese began to occupy Brazil.
• 1519 – 1521: Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire. Despite the Aztec Empire's immense power and Cortés's limited forces, he forged alliances with Aztec enemies and conquered their capital, Tenochtitlan, in 1521. In 1535, a viceroy was appointed to govern these territories, which became known as Nueva España (New Spain).
• 1531 – 1533: Francisco Pizarro subdued the vast Inca Empire. Though his forces were small, the Inca Empire was embroiled in a dynastic crisis. Pizarro requested a meeting with Emperor Atahualpa, whom he captured and later executed. The empire's subjects subsequently submitted to Spanish rule. Internal conflicts later erupted among the Spanish over the division of wealth and power. In 1542, a viceroy was appointed to govern the territory of Peru.