Africa's 19th Century Partition: European Colonization

Africa's 19th Century Partition by European Powers

Africa in the nineteenth century became a focal point for European colonizing powers. In 1880, it was a continent largely unknown to Europeans, who occupied only a series of coastal positions. By 1914, however, Africa was almost completely partitioned among these European nations.

Mediterranean Coast: French & British Rivalry

The Mediterranean coast was initially considered an area reserved for France until the emergence of British interests at Suez.

French Dominance: Algeria and Tunisia

The French initiated the occupation of the Algerian coast and subsequently succeeded in establishing a protectorate in Tunisia.

British Control: Egypt & Suez Canal

The United Kingdom declared its protectorate over Egypt in 1882. The British presence in Egypt and control of the Suez Canal occurred when Egypt, unable to pay the interest on British and French shares in the canal, was forced to entrust the management of its bonds to these two European powers. This strategic move allowed England to control the vital sea route to India.

Morocco: Tensions and Protectorates

Morocco also became a focal point of European rivalry. Tensions, particularly between France and Germany, culminated in the Algeciras Conference of 1906, which affirmed French and Spanish special interests. Subsequently, in 1912, France and Spain formally agreed to establish separate protectorates over Morocco.

West Africa: River-Based Colonial Penetration

On the western coast, three major rivers marked the penetration routes for European powers: Belgium via the Congo River, France via the Senegal River, and Britain via the Niger River. While the basins of the Senegal and Niger rivers presented fewer conflicts, the Congo Basin was a point of contention. The French were established on the right bank, and the Portuguese had installations at the mouth of the Congo River.

Congo Basin & The Berlin Conference

This complex situation led to the Berlin Conference (1884-1885). The conference aimed to regulate European colonization and trade in Africa. It determined the principle of free navigation on the Congo River, recognized existing French and Portuguese possessions, and led to the creation of the Congo Free State, which was personally controlled by King Leopold II of Belgium.

Southern Africa: British Expansion & Boer Conflicts

In southern Africa, Britain maintained its colonies of the Cape and Natal. Further expansion and occupation were largely driven by Cecil Rhodes, who attracted numerous European immigrants with the promise of gold and diamonds. Rhodes' ambitions led to conflict with the Boers (settlers of Dutch descent who had established the independent republics of Transvaal and Orange). These conflicts, known as the Boer Wars, ultimately resulted in the annexation of the Boer republics as British colonies.

East African Colonization Dynamics

On the east coast, there were no large, centralized states or extensive trade networks, with the notable exception of ivory.

British & German Spheres in East Africa

Britain, extending its influence from the Nile Valley, sought to establish a protectorate in Zanzibar. A subsequent treaty allocated the northern territories of East Africa to Britain and the southern to Germany.

French Protectorate Over Madagascar

The French, meanwhile, exercised a protectorate over Madagascar.

Nile Valley: Anglo-French Standoff

In the Nile Valley, the British aimed to establish a protectorate over Sudan, partly to facilitate their ambitious project of building a railway from the Cape to Cairo.

Fashoda Incident & British Nile Control

A French expedition, pushing eastward across Africa, reached the Upper Nile at Fashoda. Here, they encountered British troops advancing south. This confrontation, known as the Fashoda Incident (1898), brought Britain and France to the brink of war. Ultimately, the French were compelled to withdraw, leaving the Nile Valley under British control.