Advanced English Grammar Guide: Mastering Complex Structures

Advanced English Grammar Guide

The Past Perfect Simple

The past perfect simple expresses an action taking place before a certain time in the past, putting emphasis only on the fact, not the duration.

Positive/Negative/Question

• I had spoken / I had not spoken / Had I spoken?

Example: Before I came here, I had spoken to Jack.

Usage with Time Expressions:

• Use after, as soon as, the moment that, until before using the past perfect simple.
  Example: After she had moved out, I found her notes. / I didn't say anything until she had finished talking.
• Use before, when, by the time before the past simple.
  Example: Before I knew it, she had run out the door. / By the time he phoned her, she had found someone new.

The Past Perfect Progressive

The past perfect progressive puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action taking place before a certain time in the past.

• Action taking place before a certain time in the past.
• Sometimes interchangeable with the past perfect simple.
• Puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action.
• Commonly used with: for, since, the whole day, all day.

Examples:

• They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.
• She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.
• How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
• Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.

Adverb Clauses of Cause or Reason

Adverb clauses of cause or reason are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions because, as, since and that.

Examples:

• I sing because I like singing.
• He thinks he can get anything because he is rich.
• Since he has apologized, we will take no further action against him.
• As he was not there, I left a message with his mother.
• I am glad that you have come.

Concessive Clauses

A concessive clause is a clause that begins with "although" or "even though" and expresses an idea that suggests the opposite of the main part of the sentence.

Example: The sentence "Although he's quiet, he's not shy" begins with a concessive clause - "Although he's quiet" - which has an opposite meaning to "he's not shy," which is the main part of the sentence.

Note: "In spite of" and "despite" have similar meanings to "although" or "even though." However, they don't introduce clauses. They have different syntax and are followed by nouns or gerunds (verb+ing). They don't introduce a clause (subject + verb).

Comparing Structures:

1. Although, even though + subject + verb (Concessive Clause)
   Although it was raining, he walked to the station.
   Even though she is very old, she runs fast.
2. In spite of, despite + noun or verb+ing (Not a Concessive Clause)
   Despite/in spite of the rain, he walked to the station.
   Despite/in spite of being tired, he walked to the station.
3. Structural Similarities:
   "in spite of", "despite" are similar to "although", "even though".
   "because of", "due to", "owing to", "thanks to" are similar to "because", "since", "as", "for" (expressing cause and effect).
   In spite of, despite, because of, due to, owing to, thanks to: noun
   Although, even though, because, since, for, as: verb

Modal Verbs

Can indicates ability or possibility. In these cases, it can be translated as "can" in Spanish.

Example: I can speak five languages.

Could indicates possibility or ability in the past.

Example: I think it could rain later.

Like could, may is used to indicate possibilities in the future.

Example: You may use your cell phones now.

Might is used to indicate possibilities in the present or future. In these cases, it is a synonym of may.

Example: I would bring an umbrella; it might rain later.