From Absolutism to Republic: The French Revolution

Origins of the French Revolution

Influence of Enlightenment and America

The **impact of the Enlightenment and the American Revolution** provided ideological foundations for change. The Declaration of Independence of the United States of America and its Constitution (1787) defended the **inalienable** rights of the citizen, the separation of powers, principles of equality and freedom, and the right to elect a government. These ideals coincided with the Enlightenment principles spreading through France, adopted by cultural elites and the new bourgeoisie. These ideas helped the bourgeoisie confront absolutism and the stratified estate system, proposing new forms of social organization and government. All of this led to the revolutionary cycle that began in France in 1789.

Social and Economic Crisis

In the late 18th century, the Third Estate (composed of the bourgeoisie, peasants, and artisans) aspired to profound social reforms. Key grievances included:

• **Peasants** (80% of the population) opposed the heavy taxes and rents imposed by feudal lords.
• **The Bourgeoisie** sought to end the privileges enjoyed by the nobility and clergy, demanding freedom of trade and participation in political life.

France also faced severe financial distress:

• The **Economic Crisis** resulted from a series of poor harvests since 1760.
• The **Financial Crisis** was caused by the monarchy's lack of money. To resolve this, Louis XVI's ministers proposed that the privileged classes begin to pay taxes.

The Revolution Begins (1789)

Estates-General and the National Assembly

The Estates-General met in Versailles in May 1789, chaired by the king and composed of representatives of the nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate. The Third Estate representatives decided to leave the meeting when the privileged classes refused to allow them greater representation and insisted on one vote per estate rather than one per representative. The Third Estate subsequently met in a pavilion in Versailles (the *Jeu de Paume*) and proclaimed themselves the **National Assembly**.

Storming the Bastille

The people of Paris supported the Assembly's proposals and, on July 14, they stormed the Bastille, marking a decisive moment in the Revolution.

Phases of the Revolution (1789–1799)

• **Constitutional Monarchy (1789–1792):** Driven by the moderate bourgeoisie, aiming to abolish the *Ancien Régime*, elect a parliament by selective suffrage, and establish a constitution.
• **Social Republic (1792–1794):** The radical bourgeoisie, encouraged by the working classes, proclaimed the Republic and began a transformation toward a democratic and equal society with universal male suffrage and social laws.
• **Conservative Republic (1794–1799):** Despite the radicalization, the moderate bourgeoisie took power and implemented a new moderate liberalism.

Constitutional Monarchy: Detailed Actions (1789–1792)

In this phase, the moderate bourgeoisie sought to establish a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy. The **National Constituent Assembly** undertook several key actions:

1. Abolished feudalism and approved the **Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen** (August 1789), recognizing individual freedoms and equality in law and taxation.
2. Drafted the **1791 Constitution**, based on the separation of powers, national sovereignty, and legal equality. The king retained the right of veto.
3. Introduced **Census Suffrage**, limiting voting rights to citizens with a certain level of wealth.
4. Formed the **Legislative Assembly**, which drafted laws implementing liberalism, forced the nobility to pay taxes, and abolished the guilds.
5. Created the **National Guard** to defend the Revolution.
6. To solve the financial crisis, Church property was expropriated (confiscated) and sold. The state, in return, promised to fund the practice of Catholicism, formalized by the **Civil Constitution of the Clergy**, which separated the Church and the state.

Although a constitutional monarchy was established in 1791, the royal family and privileged classes rejected the changes and sought help from absolute monarchies in Europe to restore absolutism.

Achievements of the National Assembly

The National Assembly summarized its achievements:

The rights of man have been ignored for centuries, and our declaration has restored them for all mankind. The nation could not enact laws or taxes and has restored this right. The old social privileges have been destroyed, and manorial rights have disappeared. You, the French, have been elevated to the rank of citizens. You can perform all jobs and are equal before the law. You are free to think, speak, and write.

Social Republic: Detailed Actions (1792–1794)

The king's betrayal and military invasion led to a revolt by the common people (*sans-culottes*). On August 10, 1792, they stormed the Tuileries Palace and imprisoned the royal family. A republic was declared, beginning the second phase of the Revolution.

The Girondin Convention (1792–1793)

The Girondins, representing the more moderate bourgeoisie, controlled the Republic. The **National Convention** was elected by universal male suffrage. Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were convicted of treason and executed (1793). This execution prompted European monarchies to form an absolutist coalition against France, while counter-revolutionary revolts and royalist plots erupted domestically.

The Jacobin Convention (1793–1794)

In June 1793, the **Jacobins**, the most radical sector of the bourgeoisie, seized power, supported by popular sectors. This marked the Revolution's most extreme phase. They enacted a **new constitution** recognizing popular sovereignty (universal male suffrage) and the right to social equality. The executive was led by a **Committee of Public Safety**, granting immense power to the Jacobin leader, Robespierre.

Women's Role in the Revolution

The March on Versailles (October 1789)

On October 5, 1789, women in Paris, equipped with weapons and tools, marched to Versailles to protest the shortage of bread and demand that the king sign the decree abolishing manorialism.

Olympe de Gouges and Women's Rights

**Olympe de Gouges** was born into a modest bourgeois family and received an **enlightened** education. She was a playwright and wrote many articles in **defense** of women's political and civil rights. With the outbreak of the revolution, she sided with the revolutionaries but was outraged that the 1791 Constitution did not grant women the right to vote.

Women's Clubs

Women founded their own clubs, often named after the political organizations created by the different revolutionary groups. At their meetings:

• Assembly decrees were read and discussed.
• Criticisms and proposals were presented.
• Funds were collected for fellow patriots in need.

However, the prominent role of women was not accepted by many revolutionaries, and in 1793, the National Convention banned women's clubs.

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 in Corsica to a modest noble family. He began his military career at a young age and achieved military successes during the campaigns of the Directory (Conservative Republic).