19th Century Spanish Political Turmoil: Napoleon to Republic

Peninsular War and Constitution of 1812

Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, signed by Spain and France, French troops entered Spanish territory, ostensibly to invade Portugal. The subsequent Mutiny of Aranjuez was instigated against the unpopular Manuel Godoy, provoking King Charles IV's abdication in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon Bonaparte then forced both to abdicate in Bayonne, installing his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain. This marked the beginning of the War of Independence (Peninsular War).

During the conflict, the Cortes of Cádiz drafted the liberal Constitution of 1812. The Cortes adopted numerous reforms reflecting liberal principles, effectively ending the Ancien Régime.

Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and Liberal Reaction

Upon his return, Ferdinand VII initiated the Restoration of Absolutism, repealing the Constitution of 1812 and the reforms adopted during the war. However, a liberal military uprising led by Colonel Rafael del Riego forced the King to reinstate the constitution, beginning the Trienio Liberal (Liberal Triennium, 1820-1823). This period ended when the Holy Alliance authorized French intervention. An army known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis invaded Spain, restoring Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch.

The First Carlist War

The later years of Ferdinand VII's reign coincided with a severe internal crisis, exacerbated by the loss of most of the Spanish American Empire. This was compounded by a dynastic problem. Traditional Salic Law prevented female succession. Ferdinand VII, wanting his daughter Isabella to inherit the throne, promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830, nullifying this law. Many absolutists (known as Carlists) did not accept this and supported the King's brother, Infante Carlos María Isidro. When Ferdinand VII died in 1833, Don Carlos proclaimed himself King Carlos V, sparking the long and brutal First Carlist War (1833-1840), which ended in a Carlist defeat.

Reign of Isabella II: The Triumph of Liberalism

During the minority of Queen Isabella II, Spain experienced a period of regency. The first regent was her mother, Maria Christina, who initially sided with the moderate liberals. She later yielded power to General Baldomero Espartero, a progressive leader. His regency was followed by Isabella II's majority rule, marked by shifts between moderate and progressive liberal governments.

The Bienio Progresista (Progressive Biennium, 1854-1856) saw progressives, supported by the Liberal Union party, return to power. During this time, significant legislation like the General Railway Law was passed, aiming to modernize the country.

Crisis and the Glorious Revolution

The later years of Isabella II's reign were plagued by mounting economic problems and growing political instability. The Queen became increasingly unpopular, and key political groups like Republicans, Progressives, and Democrats were largely excluded from effective government participation. In 1868, a military uprising known as the Glorious Revolution forced Queen Isabella II into exile.

The Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874)

Following the revolution, a provisional government led by General Francisco Serrano was established. A new, more democratic Constitution of 1869 was adopted, establishing a constitutional monarchy but proving difficult to find a suitable monarch.

Eventually, Amadeo I of the House of Savoy was elected King. His short reign (1871-1873) was marked by constant instability, including an insurrection in Cuba (Ten Years' War) and the outbreak of the Third Carlist War. Overwhelmed, Amadeo I abdicated in February 1873.

The First Spanish Republic

Following Amadeo's abdication, the First Spanish Republic (1873-1874) was proclaimed. It proved highly unstable, facing Carlist and Cantonalist uprisings, internal divisions, and the ongoing war in Cuba. General Serrano effectively took control as head of the executive power for much of its final year. The Republic ended in December 1874 when a military coup led by General Martínez Campos in Sagunto proclaimed Alfonso XII (Isabella II's son) as King, restoring the Bourbon monarchy.