19th Century Progress: Population, Energy, Transport & Industry

Population Growth and Migration

Improvements in diet, health, and medical advances, such as the work of Pasteur and Koch, ushered in a new phase in European medicine. They managed to stop major epidemics. The decline in mortality, along with the decline in infant mortality, led to an increase in life expectancy and a parallel increase in income per capita. However, this did not cause a European population explosion. Imbalances in wealth distribution drove many people to emigrate. In the 19th century, British and Irish emigrants went to the U.S., Canada, and Australia, while Italians and Slavs went to Latin America. The causes of these movements included rural overpopulation, low industrial wages, and unemployment. People sought opportunities to prosper and get rich, where there were more possibilities than in Europe.

New Energy Sources

Electricity

Two new energy sources emerged: electricity and petroleum. Electricity offered cleanliness and flexibility. Its easy and efficient conversion into light, heat, or individual movement was revolutionary. The invention of the transformer made it possible to move electricity to distant points, leading to a decline in energy prices and increased productivity.

Petroleum

Petroleum was initially used for lighting. Advances in distillation made it possible to extend its use. Its most important application was in transportation (cars, boats, and planes).

Revolution in Transport

New energy sources fueled a revolution in transport. The main railway networks of Europe were built. Electricity allowed innovations in urban transport. In the 1870s, shipbuilding and navigation advancements shortened the duration of overseas travel, favoring European migration. The construction of the Suez and Panama Canals was significant. The invention of the pedal and tire gave way to the bicycle. However, the invention that truly revolutionized transportation was the automobile. Karl Benz developed the first petrol-powered car, and mass production of cars began in France by Peugeot and Ford. The first decades of the twentieth century saw the development of aviation by the Wright Brothers. When Bleriot crossed the English Channel, aviation became a phenomenon.

Military Inventions and New Industries

The 19th century saw a closer relationship between companies and research. Technological progress was driven by the cooperation of specialists in research laboratories, coordinated by executives seeking new applications of scientific discoveries. New products and new uses for existing ones were discovered (e.g., glass, rubber). The development of these products, along with new energy sources, led to the emergence of new industries:

• Steel Industry: Steel and aluminum production expanded.
• Electrical Industry: Electric cars, appliances, lighting, transportation, and telecommunications flourished.
• Chemical Sector: New products and the development of the pharmaceutical industry emerged.

New Organization of Capital and Labor

Business Concentration

The large investments required for technological innovations led to a rapid process of business concentration. Only large companies could cope with price wars, competition, and constant renewal. Business giants emerged, controlling entire markets and imposing prices. Forms of concentration included:

• Horizontal Concentration: Companies producing the same product merged.
• Vertical Concentration: Companies engaged in complementary activities merged.
• Cartels: Agreements to restrict or eliminate competition.
• Trusts: Mergers of several companies into a new one.
• Holdings: Financial companies that controlled multiple companies through capital investment.
• Monopolies: A single manufacturer or distributor with exclusive control over a product, imposing prices without competition.

Mass Production

Increased competition between countries led to new forms of organization to improve productivity and maintain strong market positions, especially in the U.S. This was achieved through:

Taylorism

A method of industrial organization aimed at increasing productivity by eliminating unnecessary movements and optimizing time to reduce costs. This involved optimizing the work process and using assembly lines.

Assembly Line

A moving belt sets the pace of production, avoids wasting time, and systematizes worker actions. For example, Henry Ford adapted the assembly line to automobile production at his factory in Detroit. The objective was to build a large number of cars at low cost, using innovative machinery and skilled workers who were paid high wages to become consumers. Ford made the first production car accessible and affordable for the average American family.