19th Century Political Transformation: Constitutions, Liberalism, and 1848 Revolutions

Spanish Constitution of 1812

• Form of Government: Parliamentary Constitutional Monarchy
• Executive Branch: King and Ministers
• Legislature: Parliament and King (with "suspensive veto on laws")
• Judiciary: Independent
• Suffrage: Universal Male Suffrage (Indirect)
• State Religion: Confessional (Catholic)
• Established wide rights and freedoms.
• Cortes: Unicameral

Spanish Constitution of 1869

• Constitutional Monarchy
• Sovereignty: National
• Complete Separation of Powers
• Suffrage: Direct Universal Male Suffrage
• Non-denominational State (Secular)
• Guaranteed rights including Religious Freedom, education, and the right to inviolability of information.

Key Ideologies: Liberalism and Nationalism

Liberalism was the ideology defending individual freedom, a core value during the Restoration era against suppressed absolutism. The liberal movement believed its objectives could only be achieved through:

• A Constitution reflecting the will of the people.
• A Parliament exercising legislative power, where the people are represented by deputies.

The Rise of Nationalism

Nationalism arose as a reaction to Napoleon's invasion. It demanded freedom for peoples and nations and opposed the monarchical principle of legality imposed by the Congress of Vienna.

The 1848 Revolution in France

Louis Philippe d'Orléans favored the economic interests of the bourgeoisie but failed to satisfy the demands of liberals. Meanwhile, the populace was unhappy due to high prices resulting from a succession of bad harvests. This situation led to two revolutionary movements:

The February Revolution

• Revolutionaries achieved the abdication of Louis Philippe.
• The Second Republic was proclaimed.
• A Constituent Assembly was convened, establishing universal male suffrage.

The June Barricades (June Days Uprising)

Demanding improvements in living conditions and labor rights, these uprisings were brutally suppressed.

During the Second Republic, Louis Napoleon was elected President. Following the steps of his ancestor, he declared himself President for life and, in 1852, Emperor. Thus, France transitioned from the Second Republic to the Second Empire.

The 1848 Revolutionary Wave Across Europe

The events in France triggered a revolutionary wave across Europe, driven by two main factors:

• Democratic parties demanding universal suffrage, freedom of the press, and freedom of expression.
• Strong nationalist movements gaining traction throughout Europe.

Karl Marx and the Rise of Socialism

The Revolutions of 1848 demonstrated the conflicting interests between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Socialism entered a new phase dominated by the thought of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who published The Communist Manifesto. Marx provided a critical analysis of society and economics.

Historical Materialism Defined

Historical Materialism is the method of conceiving history based on technical and economic factors (the material base), viewing ideas and political structures not as primary drivers, but as results of underlying material causes.