19th Century Philosophy: Idealism, Critiques, and New Movements

Contemporary Philosophy: The 19th Century Context

Contemporary philosophy extends from the early 19th century to the present day. The most visible feature of this period is the lack of unity in its problems and approaches. Therefore, one cannot speak of a unified vision for this stage of philosophy, as the variety and disparity of interests and philosophical movements, motivated by profound and rapid societal changes, became its only common characteristic.

This article focuses on the 19th century. While historically known as the century of revolutions, from a philosophical perspective, the 19th century is defined by the rise of idealism and the subsequent reactions against it.

This period of philosophy can be broadly divided into two main stages:

First Half of the 19th Century: Hegelian Idealism Dominates

Idealism is a philosophical system asserting that the essence of things is established within consciousness; thus, we do not perceive objects directly but through the filter of our consciousness. In this sense, modern currents like rationalism, empiricism, and transcendental idealism align with this school of thought. However, German Idealism, particularly Hegel's philosophy, radically intensified this stance, asserting that everything exists within consciousness. Hegel, therefore, conceived reality as Subject, Spirit, or Idea, a thesis implying that:

• The essence of humanity is its reason (the Self).
• Reality, understood as Reason or Spirit, unfolds through history. This reality is a living entity that thrives on its internal contradictions (the dialectic).
• Every historical moment is thus justified as a necessary step towards reaching its ultimate goal, or the end of history.
• For Hegelian philosophy, Spirit and thought are primary, while matter and nature are secondary.

Second Half of the 19th Century: Critiques of Hegelian Idealism

During this stage, there was a growing mistrust of purely speculative philosophy. A demand for pragmatism emerged as humanity became increasingly aware of its capacity to transform reality, culture, and society. This shift led to the rise of action-oriented philosophies aimed at transforming reality.

Furthermore, the 'positive spirit' (emphasizing that only 'facts' matter) became widespread, inspiring the philosophy of science. Examples of these trends are:

• Positivism: This movement reasserted the value of the natural sciences, which Hegel had questioned, and appealed to scientific achievements as a guarantee of knowledge. Positivists established empirical science as the only valid model of knowledge, extending its methods to the human sciences (like sociology) and often dismissing philosophy as offering insufficiently rigorous knowledge.
• Materialism: Countering the Hegelian claim that everything is spirit, materialists asserted matter as the essence of reality. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are the main representatives of this trend, which interprets all phenomena—including history—as fundamentally material.
• Vitalism: This encompasses various currents that sought to overcome the perceived limitations of positivism, arguing that it had neglected life, spiritual values (especially freedom), and the spontaneous, creative aspects of human nature. Life became the fundamental category for understanding reality, viewed as dynamic, changing, and individual. Friedrich Nietzsche holds a privileged position within this movement, which also extended its influence into the 20th century with prominent representatives such as the Spanish philosopher José Ortega y Gasset, among others.