19th Century Industrialization: Urban Growth & Worker Struggles

The City as the Center of New Industry

During the 19th century, factories and the burgeoning business bourgeoisie found their stage in the industrialized world's cities. These urban centers grew at a dizzying pace. One of the primary drivers of this change was the United Kingdom. London was a clear example of these transformations; in 50 years, its population surged from over 700,000 to more than 1 million, making it the most populous city in the world. This huge increase was due to rural exodus and high birth rates. The same behavior was observed in other European cities, such as Brussels, Milan, and Vienna. Workers, often newly arrived from rural areas, crowded into neighborhoods built near industrial zones. These areas often lacked basic services, and such unmet needs led to the creation of associations.

The Formation of the Working Class

Workers, or the proletariat, constituted a new social group. From where did its members originate? They came from various backgrounds:

• Farmers who could no longer sustain themselves after the loss of communal lands.
• Those previously employed in home-based work, who had to adapt to the new demands of the industrial economy.
• Artisans from urban guilds, forced to close their workshops.

The introduction of machines directly led to the formation of this working class. Working conditions were extremely harsh, and labor conditions were largely similar across all industrialized countries, characterized by:

• Long working hours, often from sunrise to sunset.
• Strict discipline and corporal punishment.
• Economic sanctions.
• Removal of Sunday rest and and holidays.
• Frequent layoffs and lack of pensions.
• No provisions for illness or unemployment.
• Absence of basic labor rights.

The first regulations on freedom of association emerged in the United Kingdom, but their effectiveness was minimal. Diseases such as rickets, malnutrition, and tuberculosis were rampant among workers. The new industrial work was mechanical, routine, and dictated by the rhythm of machines.

Child and Female Labor

Before the Industrial Revolution, women and children commonly worked in various tasks within the field, workshop, or family home. Formal schooling was unusual, and most households quickly needed children's labor to support the family.

Some tasks for women included: fashion designer, guarantor, or domestic servant. Wages were very low and often had to supplement a family's subsistence economy. With industrialization, women increasingly took on other forms of work, such as domestic service, textile production, and even surface mining, though rarely in steel or metallurgy.

Child labor formed an essential part of the family economy, and there was a prevailing opinion favorable to its existence. Children often worked 14 to 18 hours daily, and their wages were significantly lower than adults'. Legislation protective of children was scarce and applied with little concern. The prohibition of work for children under nine years old was established by the UK, but it was rarely enforced. Only from 1844 did the situation begin to improve.