19th Century: Industrialization, Nations, and Empires

Monopoly: Exclusive Market Control

Monopoly ownership consists of a product exclusively controlled by a single manufacturer or distributor, which imposes prices without any external control.

New Leading Industrial Sectors

The emergence of new leading sectors was driven by new energy sources and technological innovations, leading to the discovery of new products and applications. This resulted in the rise of new productive sectors. The siderurgical industry (iron and steel) and metallurgy experienced significant expansion, alongside the burgeoning automotive and electrical industries. Electrical technology, in particular, found a large number of applications. The chemical industry also received a major boost with the creation of new products and the development of the pharmaceutical industry.

Rise of Industrialized States

Previously dominant regions, such as New England, saw their share of total world production decrease. In Europe, Germany emerged as a main competitor. Relevant features of German industry included large companies, new forms of organization, and business concentration.

The Unification of Germany

Towards the unification of Germany, around 1830, the territory was divided into 38 states, with Prussia and Austria as the two dominant powers. The initial step towards unification was the customs union, the Zollverein. Otto von Bismarck, a Prussian statesman, orchestrated the unification. Prussia won a war against Austria, leading to a unified Germany (excluding Austria). Wilhelm I became the German Emperor (Kaiser of the Reich), with Bismarck as Chancellor, shaping its policies.

The Unification of Italy

Towards the unification of Italy, around 1820, the Italian peninsula was divided into several unequal states, with some areas under Austrian dominion. Italy faced a choice between a monarchy and a republic. Republicans held sway in the south, while monarchists were dominant in the north. The monarchists eventually unified most of Italy but did not initially conquer Rome. The Pope did not accept the loss of his temporal power and considered himself a prisoner of the Italian king.

State, Nation, and Country: Definitions

• State: A political organization with laws, governing a territory bounded by a border.
• Nation: A group of people sharing common land, language, culture, and identity. A state can encompass multiple nations (e.g., the Jewish nation).
• Country: A particular geographical area that has a distinct entity.

The Birth of Empires and Imperialism

From the last third of the nineteenth century, industrialized nations began to dominate the world and create colonial empires. These imperial powers included Great Britain (England), France, Germany, Japan, Russia, the Netherlands, the USA, Belgium, Italy, and Spain.

Causes of Imperialism:

• Protecting the state's own economy (protectionism).
• Obtaining raw materials for domestic industries.
• Producing agricultural resources within the empire.
• Achieving new markets for manufactured goods.
• Establishing new settlements for surplus population.
• Gaining military prestige.
• Utilizing unskilled labor at low wages.

Types of Colonies:

• Colonies of Settlement: These featured a significant European emigrant population. Settlers often aimed to replicate the rights and privileges of the metropole (their home country). This system was typically imposed, often affecting the status and rights of the indigenous population.
• Colonies of Exploitation: These had a small emigrant population from the metropolis and focused on the systematic extraction and utilization of resources.

The Division of Africa

From the seventeenth century, European presence in Africa was largely limited to small coastal settlements. Starting around 1830, colonies of settlement were established, such as in Algeria. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, British interest in Africa intensified, particularly due to the discovery of diamonds in South Africa and other valuable resources. A key British goal was to create a colonial empire stretching from North to South Africa.

The Suez Canal's Impact

The opening of the Suez Canal significantly facilitated trade between Europe, Africa, and Asia. Vessels no longer needed to circumnavigate Africa. Instead, they could pass through the canal, connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea via Egypt, drastically shortening trade routes.

Map Projections: Mercator and Peters

The Mercator Map

The Mercator map, created by Gerardus Mercator in the sixteenth century, tends to represent central areas (around the equator) with relative accuracy in shape and scale locally, but significantly distorts and enlarges areas towards the North and South poles.

The Peters Map (Gall-Peters Projection)

Circa 1972, Arno Peters promoted a map projection (often known as the Gall-Peters projection) that aims to represent all areas with correct relative size (equal-area), though this results in distortion of shapes, particularly in equatorial and polar regions.