19th Century Europe: Restoration, Revolutions, and Unifications

The Restoration Era After Napoleon (1815)

Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the Ancien Régime was restored. This meant a return to the political system imposed by Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain. These European powers met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) and implemented several measures:

• Absolute monarchs were reinstated.
• Europe’s borders were redrawn.
• The European powers agreed to support any monarch facing revolution.

During the Restoration, two alliances formed:

• The Holy Alliance: Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
• The Quadruple Alliance: Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain.

Key Ideologies of the 19th Century

Three main ideologies shaped the era:

• Liberalism: Advocated for individual liberties such as the right to life, freedom of expression, and association.
• Nationalism: Advocated for the right of people who define themselves as a nation to form independent states.
• Democracy: Advocated for ordinary people’s right to participate in politics.

19th Century Political Revolutions

The political revolutions of the 19th century were based on liberalism, nationalism, and democracy.

Revolutions of the 1820s

The liberal revolutions occurred in Spain and Portugal. In Spain, it lasted only three years, but in Portugal, it succeeded. The national revolution took place in Greece and was also successful.

Revolutions of the 1830s

Two other revolutions occurred in the 1830s. Belgium's national revolution succeeded, and France's liberal revolution was also successful.

Revolution of 1848

In 1848, a democratic revolution occurred in France, led by the petite bourgeoisie seeking access to political power.

Italian Unification (1859-1870)

The Italian unification was driven by several factors:

• The Congress of Vienna had divided the Italian peninsula into seven states.
• Liberal and nationalist successes in other countries inspired Italians.
• The failure of the revolutions of 1848 encouraged nationalism.
• Important figures supported Italian unification.

The unification was initiated by Victor Emanuel II, and Cavour sought to expand the kingdom. Italy became a parliamentary monarchy.

German Unification (1866-1871)

The German unification began as a result of these factors:

• Germany was divided into 39 states.
• Liberal and nationalist ideas were popular.
• The Frankfurt Parliament attempted to create a unified state with universal manhood suffrage.
• A custom union had been established in 1834.

Otto von Bismarck initiated the process of unification in 1862. In 1871, Germany became an empire, marking the end of the unification process.

Impact on European Relations

Both unifications significantly affected European relations:

• The German Empire became Europe’s dominant power.
• The Austro-Hungarian Empire lost power and influence in both Italy and Germany.