18th Century Europe: Society, Politics, and Culture

Historical and Sociocultural Context of 18th-Century Europe

In 18th-century Europe, absolute monarchies dominated much of the continent, with exceptions such as Great Britain (a constitutional monarchy), Venice, and Switzerland. In Eastern Europe, where feudalism persisted, a form of government known as enlightened despotism emerged, extending to Prussia, Russia, Austria, and Spain. In 1776, the United States declared independence from Great Britain and, in 1787, proclaimed the first Constitution of the country and the entire world. The English parliamentary system, the U.S. Constitution, and the French Revolution of 1789 would serve as the starting points for the modern organization of society.

In economics, efforts were made to achieve industrialization. Living conditions improved, and mortality decreased, initiating the demographic transition and population growth. Furthermore, during the Industrial Revolution (1750-1840), new technologies were introduced into the production system and transportation. Manufacturing and agricultural production were rationalized, the commercial network expanded, and the financial sector developed.

In art, the Baroque period came to an end, while other movements such as Neoclassicism, Pre-Romanticism, and Rococo emerged. Meanwhile, in the field of music, this century saw some of the greatest musicians in history: Vivaldi, Mozart, Bach, and Beethoven. In science, the most important figure was Newton and his mechanics, but Euler (mathematics), Coulomb (magnetism), Celsius, and Fahrenheit (physics) were also very significant.

Philosophical Framework of the 18th Century

In the realm of philosophy, empiricism marked the century of the Enlightenment and Naturalism.

• Empiricism, born in Britain, asserted that truth is subject to and limited by sensory data, that is, by experience. Hume represented the culmination of the movement initiated by Locke. His radical empiricism led him to skepticism, although it also had positive effects, as it helped him adopt a more critical and coherent approach to the capabilities and possibilities of human knowledge.
• The Enlightenment was characterized by its critical, analytical, and self-reflective stance: an acute analysis of reality that arose from the application of reason to all domains of human knowledge.
• Finally, optimistic naturalism advocated the idea that nature can be comprehended by reason and thus confronted the supernatural.