18th Century Europe: Society, Economy, and the Ancien Régime

Europe at the Dawn of the 18th Century: The Ancien Régime

At the beginning of the 18th century, Europe lived under the 'Ancien Régime' (Old Regime). This was a system based on:

• A seigneurial agricultural economy.
• Absolute monarchy.
• An estates-based society.

Seigneurial Agriculture: The Economic Foundation

From an economic point of view, agriculture was the most important activity. Key characteristics included:

• Subsistence Farming: Primarily aimed at self-sufficiency, often using a triennial rotation system with fallow land. Autoconsumption was the norm, with few surpluses.
• Subsistence Crises: The economy was vulnerable to crises. Poor harvests led to food shortages, price increases, hunger, and misery, which often generated popular riots.
• Land Ownership: Most land was in the hands of the nobility and the clergy.
• Peasantry: The majority of the population were peasants who worked the land of their masters and were subject to paying heavy taxes.

An Absolute Monarchy: Concentrated Power

Political power rested with the monarch:

• Absolute Power: The King possessed absolute authority.
• Divine Right: The monarchy was considered to be of divine character. The king held all powers and was accountable to no one.
• Subjects, Not Citizens: Those governed were subjects without any kind of rights.
• Royal Assistance: The king was aided by institutions like the Council of State. He also consulted Parliament (known as the Estates-General in France or the Cortes in Spain), which advised the king and approved new taxes.

Economic Developments and Expansion

After the War of the Spanish Succession ended with the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, an international equilibrium was established. Conflicts were often resolved through diplomacy, and alliance treaties were signed between countries.

Factors Driving Growth:

• The absence of major epidemics.
• The possible introduction of new crops (like potatoes and corn).
• An improved economic situation.

This led to an increase in population. The growing demand for products resulted in higher prices, which increased the earnings of property owners and stimulated an increase in production.

Monarchical Intervention:

Monarchies boosted economic growth by:

• Promoting agricultural reforms.
• Financing the installation of manufacturing facilities (especially for luxury objects).
• Protecting trading companies.

To facilitate the essential mobility of goods, transport infrastructure was improved through the construction of roads and canals.

Colonial Trade and the Triangular Route

The 18th century witnessed a great expansion of maritime trade with territories outside Europe, known as colonial trade.

• Ships from Britain, Holland, France, Spain, and Portugal traded manufactured goods for raw materials.
• The basis of this colonial trade was the triangular trade, which involved:
  1. Collecting Black slaves in Africa.
  2. Transporting them to America.
  3. Selling them there to work under inhuman conditions on agricultural plantations.

An Unequal Society: The Estates System

Society under the Ancien Régime was characterized by civil inequality, divided into distinct social orders or estates.

• It was divided into two main groups: the privileged and the non-privileged.
• Belonging to an order or estate was determined by birth, making social advancement almost impossible.

The Privileged Estates: Nobility and Clergy

• They owned seigneurial land.
• They monopolized all high positions (charges).
• They were exempt from the payment of taxes.
• They accumulated wealth and enjoyed honorary, economic, and fiscal concessions.
• The clergy lived off the income from holding their land and the tithe (diezmo). The High Clergy (Alto Clero) lived in luxury, while the Low Clergy (Bajo Clero) led a modest life.

The Non-Privileged: The Third Estate

• Comprised the vast majority of the population (around 90%).
• Contained people with very different economic or social situations.
• Bourgeoisie: Included artisans, merchants, and bankers. They were economically active but marginalized from circles of power and aspired to gain it.
• Urban Popular Classes: Consisted of workers in the cities.
• Peasants: The largest group. They faced the hardest conditions, working the lands of the privileged and having to pay heavy taxes (seigneurial rights).