18th-Century British Philosophy: Hume, Society, and History

Philosophical Framework

Eighteenth-century British philosophy sought to ground social, moral, and legal principles in the context of new economic and intellectual conditions. Unlike ancient philosophy, which relied on metaphysical concepts such as self, God, or the natural state, this new approach emphasized anthropology, particularly Hume's exploration of the moral sense.

Hume aimed to create a 'science of man' using Newton's experimental method, prioritizing induction over deduction to achieve greater certainty. He sought to apply the law of universal gravitation to the field of mind, re-evaluating legal concepts within this framework. A key aspect of this period was the empirical orientation of thought, influenced by practical considerations and Newtonian science.

Over time, secularism gained prominence, leading to both fervent belief and agnosticism. Individualistic tolerance emerged within bourgeois society, rejecting dogmatism. Hume's work reflects this enlightened perspective, striving for a philosophy independent of divine influence. However, there were also attempts to develop natural religion or a religion of reason, notably Herbert of Cherbury's De Veritate, which sought a common core of sound principles across all religions. Hume's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion features three characters: Demeas, Cleanthes, and Philo.

Sociocultural Framework

The aristocracy held significant influence in eighteenth-century society. Continental absolutism maintained their legal estates, distinguishing the nobility as a separate group. There were two types of nobility: the nobility of the sword (of feudal origin) and the nobility of the robe (who acquired titles through payment). This gave rise to the ruling aristocracy, church hierarchies, and estate managers. In England, the nobility consisted of peers (with noble status) and the gentry (middle and lower class without specific statutes). A feudal structure persisted, where landlords exerted considerable control over peasants.

In England, capitalism flourished as nobles leased land to the rural bourgeoisie, benefiting from the arrangement. This capitalist system was protected by a conservative, aristocratic state. A rivalry existed between France and Britain for global dominance, with England ultimately prevailing due to its commercial advantages and more effective administration and military.

Significant scientific advancements included Newton's influence on experimental methods, Halley's comet predictions, Watt's invention of the steam engine, and Priestley's discovery of oxygen. In music, Handel, of German origin, composed oratorios such as the Messiah. Literature saw writers like Defoe (a father of the English novel) and Swift (Gulliver's Travels) gaining prominence. English painting favored portraits and landscapes, while architecture shifted from Baroque to neoclassical ideals. Adam Smith stood out in the cultural landscape as a prominent economist.

Historical Setting

David Hume was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1711. He lived in Britain. In England, the monarchy had evolved into a parliamentary system where executive power resided in the parliament, composed of individuals with financial stability. Legislative power was subject to certain limits. The capitalist economy encompassed agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing industries dependent on the state.