17th Century Revolutions: Rise of Parliament and Scientific Method

The Dutch Republic's Independence

The United Provinces gained independence from Spain in 1648, establishing a republic comprised of seven provinces, each with its own Parliament. Representatives from each province convened at the States General to make collective decisions.

The Rise of Parliament in England

The Road to a Parliamentary System

In the early 17th century, Stuart kings sought absolute rule over Great Britain and Ireland, rejecting Parliament. This unpopular move, coupled with religious revolts in Scotland, ignited a revolution in 1640.

Civil War and the Fall of the Stuarts

Confrontations escalated into the Civil War in 1642, culminating in the downfall of the Stuart dynasty. Charles I's execution marked the end of the monarchy. Parliamentarian leader Oliver Cromwell seized power, establishing a dictatorship.

The Glorious Revolution and the Bill of Rights

Following Cromwell's death, Parliament restored the monarchy. However, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 led to the deposition of James II. A year later, the Bill of Rights was enacted, limiting royal power, outlining Parliament's rights, and laying the foundation for the separation of powers. This marked the triumph of parliamentary monarchy in England.

Social Changes

England's expansion during this period fostered a prosperous bourgeoisie, primarily merchants enriched by trade and finance. The gentry, or country nobility, also saw their prestige and influence solidify. By the 17th century, the gentry controlled roughly half of Britain's land, employing modern agricultural techniques for maximum profit.

The Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Method

Humanist emphasis on reason propelled scientific advancements in the 17th century. Thinkers believed truth could be reached through reason (rationalism) and experimentation (empiricism). Frenchman René Descartes championed rationalism, while Englishman Francis Bacon advocated empiricism.

The scientific method, developed in this era, remains in use today. It involves:

1. Formulating a hypothesis.
2. Testing the hypothesis through experiments and comparison with reality.
3. Confirming, rejecting, or revising the hypothesis based on the test results.